Bolivia
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Guatemala
Jamaica
Nicaragua
Peru
Uruguay
Venezuela
LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN
Bolivia has a total land area of 1.1 million sq. km., a population which was estimated in 1987 at 6.7 million, and a population density of only 6 persons/sq. km. The country has one of the lowest standards of living in Latin America with a per capita GNP of only US$600; a high percent of the workforce is employed in the informal economy. Approximately half of the total population, which is increasing at an average rate of 2.7% per annum, lives in urban areas. Seventy percent of the population lives in the Andean region, but the plains to the East of the Andes have experienced a high rate of population immigration, partly because of recent discoveries of petroleum and natural gas there. About half of the total workforce is employed in agriculture.
Life expectancy at birth has risen from 43 years in 1960 to 57 in 1985, and literacy rates have greatly increased since the sixties. The economy stagnated between 1979 and 1981, suffered a deep economic recession in 1982-83 which turned into a mild recession during 1984-86. In 1985 the government introduced a new economic stabilization programme which began to show fruits in the form of sharply reduced inflation in 1987. Foreign investment increased, foreign debts were rescheduled and IMF stand-by credits became available again.
Agriculture
Droughts and floods in 1980/81, 1983/84 and 1986 severely affected the production of food and of essential cash crops - sugar and cotton. During 1980-82, food prices increased at roughly the same rate as general prices (see FPI/CPI). Because of a sharp drop in 1983 in both domestic cereal production and total food production (Food Production Index & Cereals: Production), food prices increased rapidly and at a faster rate than the general price level (FPI/CPI). Rising cereal imports and increased cereal aid provided a cushion at first, but cereal imports dropped sharply in 1984 before returning to previous levels. Cereal aid dropped in 1985, when domestic production was high, and increased to previous levels in 1986 as production fell. Wheat is a major imported cereal in Bolivia, and in 1985 it accounted for more than half of total cereal imports. The 1986 droughts and floods did not seriously affect cereal production, though total food production was down sharply on the 1985 high. Cereal availability rose considerably between 1983 and 1986 (Cereal Availability), and total food availability (as Kcals per day) recovered after 1983 and remains stable.
Cereal production in 1987 was comparable to the previous year's following a prolonged dry spell during the growing season. The Food Production Index fell for the second year running.
The Economy
Reduced food production as a result of the drought and floods no doubt contributed to inflation. However, reduced export earnings (particularly from minerals and natural gas) were responsible for a substantial reduction in imports of consumer and capital goods between 1980 and 1985. Major devaluations of the currency took place in 1982, 1983, 1984 (twice) and 1985 (Exchange Rate). It was not until 1987 that the hyper-inflation -which had been experienced since 1981/82 (CPI) - was brought under some degree of control. This was managed as a result of the government's economic package of a floating exchange rate, monetary control, elimination of subsidies, and wage control in the public sector.
Nutrition
Young children in rural areas may have suffered considerably from the food shortages caused by the droughts and floods of 1983, on top of the impact of hyper-inflation. Although the age samples of children in 1981 and 1985-87 are not the same, nor is the sampling frame, the available evidence suggests that weight deficiency was significantly higher in 1985 than in either 1981 or 1986-'87 (see Underweight Children)1.
1 Specifically, the 1985 value for Urban underweight prevalence graphed on the previous page is likely to be an underestimate both of a national figure and of that for the same age-band as 1981. This follows because a) rural prevalences of underweight are consistently higher than urban (see Additional Prevalence Indicators, middle chart), and b) the inclusion of children in the 0-5 month age-range (for 1985: 0-59 months) will tend to lower the prevalence estimate as compared to 1981 (6-59 months), since underweight is likely to increase after 6 months of age.Further comparisons between urban and rural groups from these studies for 1981 and 1987 (see Additional Prevalence Indicators) provide evidence of improvement for the rural children but not for their urban counterparts - this applies to both percentage underweight and percentage stunted.
Overall then, rural children appear to have recovered more rapidly when food supplies rose significantly after the 1983-84 shortages. On the other hand, children in urban areas may have suffered more from the effects of hyper-inflation which affects access to food more seriously in the cities. By 1987 average prevalences of underweight had returned to around the levels seen in 1981.
Separate studies of under fives between 1985 and 1987 in La Paz indicated only a very slight drop in the percentage of underweight children (see Additional Prevalence Indicators, 1st. chart); these percentages remain well above expected levels as indicated by the reference line.
BOLIVIA
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POPULATION: 6.7 M |
IMR: 111 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 6 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 176 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 2.7% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$600 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 49% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 10% - 20%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
ADDITIONAL PREVALENCE INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<3rd. percentile Wt/Age) in children under 5 years in La Paz. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<75% Wt/Age) in children aged 6-59 months (1981), 0-59 months (1987). Health Centre data
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 6-59 months (1981), 0-59 months (1987). Health Centre data.
Chile has achieved a relatively high level of socio-economic development. Life expectancy at birth stands at 71.5 years (1986), and 92% of the population over 15 years is literate. The infant mortality rate is 18.6/1000 (1987), down from 97.3/1000 in 1965. The 1986/87 indices are broadly similar to those found in the developed economies of Europe.
Chile has a total land area of 756,626 sq. km., and a total population of 12.5 million (1987), a third of whom live in the capital city Santiago. Ecologically the country can be divided into three regions: dry and hot in the north, wet and cold in the south, and temperate in the central areas. It is in the central regions that most agricultural activities take place.
The Economy
Agriculture generates only some 10% of gross domestic product. The country is a net food importer. Wheat is the main staple food, and Chile is close to being self-sufficient in wheat production now, but in the early part of the 1980's the country had to rely heavily on imports. Chile suffered from a severe economic recession in 1981-83 as a result of depressed copper prices and the world recession generally. Total imports fell by 50% in 1982 and at the same time the foreign debt rose significantly requiring 30% of export earnings for servicing (see Debt & Debt Ratio). Economic recovery came partly as a result of increased earnings from copper exports when the price recovered somewhat. In addition increased foreign investments, strict fiscal policy, selective import tariffs, and price supports, assisted the process. Declining imports produced trade surpluses in 1984-1987. The Chilean peso showed a consistent and substantial trend of devaluations starting in 1982. (Exchange Rate).
Agriculture
During the period of economic recovery (1984-87), the per capita availability of basic foods fluctuated from year to year. With the exception of fats, the per capita availability of the remaining food fell between 1984 and 1985 as a result of declining imports of wheat, rice, sugar, and milk. At the same time the domestic production of rice, potatoes and meat declined, while cereal production rose significantly (Cereals: Production). Availability of potatoes continued to drop as domestic production fell. Food prices increased sharply between 1984 and 1987 (FPI), while real earnings decreased by 3% during this period. Food prices had risen less rapidly than the general price level until 1985, but then began to increase at a faster rate. Overall food availability (as Kcals per day) was reduced only slightly between 1982 and 1986.
Cereal production reached a record high in 1987 mainly due to an increase in the area sown. The maize crop for 1988 (harvested in May) yielded a higher return than 1987's; end-of-year weather conditions were reported as satisfactory and it is anticipated that the wheat crop (harvested in Dec.) will be comparable to the previous year's record.
Nutrition
There are a number of national food and nutrition programmes operating in Chile. Several of these programmes, such as for severely malnourished children, have expanded their coverage during the 1980's.
Total milk distributed for infants and expectant mothers during 1982-85 increased over 1977-81 levels. The coverage of the National Health System also improved during the 1980's. In 1981 unemployed persons with children under five years of age became eligible to receive an income subsidy from the State, and in 1982 these benefits were extended to include children under 8 years of age and pregnant women. These economic benefits no doubt counteracted somewhat the effects of the economic recession for vulnerable groups.
The prevalence of underweight children (NB: using a local - Sempé - weight-forage curve, < 1 S.D.) of less than six years of age fell from 15.9% in 1976 to 8.8% in 1987, with most of the gain occurring before 1982 (Underweight Children). The percentage below 2 S.D.'s reference Wt/Age was less than 1% in 1987. The expected prevalence - as calculated from the normal or Gaussian curve - is marked on the graphs. It will be seen that the recorded figures are now well below this line. From the comparison of recent years (1984-'86) there is some evidence of a small rise in the prevalence of growth and weight deficits in children under 24 months (Additional Prevalence Indicators). This is less evident in the 2 - 5 year old's.
Obesity is a significant and possibly growing problem in Chile. The percentage of children aged 10 - 14 years in excess of 120% of the reference median was 10.3%, 10.6% and 12.0% between 1983 and 1985, respectively.
The monthly prevalences of weight deficit (<-2 S.D.'s on the Sempé Curve) for 1984 through 1986 are graphed (Additional Prevalence Indicators). These show a seasonal effect with a high in Jan./Feb. and a low in Sept./Oct.
The monthly prevalence of low birth weight (LBW) is also shown for 1985 and 1986. Again there is evidence for seasonality, with a peak around June. The annual figures for LBW for 1984 through 1987 are: 6.5%, 7.0%, 7.0% and 6.9%, respectively. These levels are low and comparable to those observed in developed countries.
CHILE
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POPULATION: 12.5 M |
IMR: 20 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 16 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 26 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 1.7% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$1,320 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 84% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 0 - 10%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
ADDITIONAL PREVALENCE INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<-2 S.D. Wt/Age) in children aged under 6 years, by age group. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged under 6 years, by age group. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of wasting (<-2 S.D. Wt/Ht) in children aged under 6 years, by age group. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Monthly prevalence of underweight (<-1 S.D. Wt/Age) of children aged under 6 year. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Monthly prevalence of Low Birth Weight (< 2,500 gms)
The Republic of Colombia occupies an area of 1,141,748 sq. km., with a total population of 29.9 million (1987) and an average of 26 persons/sq. km. The population is growing, on average, at the rate of 1.9% per annum. Ninety-five percent of the population is located in the area to the west of the Andes (46% of the territory). Roughly two-thirds of the population lives in urban areas.
The Economy
Colombia suffered an economic recession during the early part of the 1980's, followed by an economic recovery starting in 1984. Economic growth accelerated in 1986 partly because of high international prices for coffee and a poor coffee harvest in Brazil. However, the recent fall in world coffee prices will very likely have slowed the rate of economic recovery during 1987. In response to the earlier recession, which was also due to the reduced international demand for coffee (co-incident with a flight of capital for investment abroad), government economic policy included several currency devaluations (in fact, the Colombian peso shows a continuing trend of devaluations during 1980-87 - see Exchange Rate), import controls and new incentives for foreign investment. The 1984-86 development plan as proposed, depended on foreign investment amounting to 55% of its total cost. The plan was only partially implemented. Colombia's foreign debt, which was considered low in 1981 with a healthy relation to GDP and export earnings, has grown considerably since (Debt Ratio & Debt Outstanding). Substantial foreign borrowings in 1987 were required to partially finance the government's 1987-90 investment plan for agrarian reform, amongst other adjustments to the economy.
Agriculture
The agricultural sector generates less than 25% of GDP, and absorbs about a quarter of the total workforce. Urban migration and increased mechanization in crop production have reduced the size of the agricultural workforce over time. Coffee is the leading commercial crop, while the traditional agricultural sector produces such staple foods as potatoes, maize, beans, cassava, as well as citrus fruits. Coffee contributes more than fifty percent of the total value of exports.
Total food production fell significantly in 1982 and 1983, and had not yet returned to 1981 levels by 1987 (Food Production Index). Cereal availability fell to a low in 1981, when cereal imports also dropped by more than 50% (Cereal Availability, Cereals: Imports & Aid). Cereal production and imports both rose again in 1982, increasing total cereal availability.
Between 1982 and 1986 domestic cereal production steadily fell while imports remained high. The sharp increase in 1987 in domestic cereal production was reflected in total cereal availability (Cereal Availability). Dietary energy availability did not vary to any degree over the 7 years from 1980 to '87 (Kcals per day). Rice is the principal cereal, consumed by more than 90% of households, but on the average contributes only 15% of total calories consumed.
Food prices rose faster than general prices during the second part of the period (1985-87), perhaps as an indirect result of the overall growth in the economy (CPI/FPI, CPI & FPI).
For 1988, the first season cereal crops which were harvested between July and September, were reported as being up on 1987's. However, hurricane damage may reduce the yield from the second season crop due to be harvested in early 1989.
Nutrition
There is evidence that in Colombia the prevalence of acute and chronic undernutrition has diminished over the last twenty years, at least in children below 3 years of age. (NB: The three national surveys are not strictly comparable as the age range increased slightly in 1986.) This trend is more evident in the rural population than the urban (Underweight & Stunted Children) and is seen in both prevalence of underweight and in prevalence of stunting.
Regional differences were very marked in 1965 and 1977, but these are less dramatic in 1986 (Additional Prevalence Indicators). Bogota shows lower prevalences of both underweight and growth retardation. It also differs in that the 1977 values exceed the 1965 - a feature not seen in the other regions.
Quarterly prevalence of underweight for 12 municipalities (from surveys in the Depto. De Quindio) for children under 5 years during 1987 are also shown (Trends in Quarterly Prevalence) Substantial differences between the municipalities are evident in terms of the extent of the problem, although some seasonal patterns emerge depending on municipality. These have been grouped roughly on the basis of the rise or fall in prevalences between the 2nd. and 4th. quarters. While prevalences are high for all municipalities, those for Salento and Buenavista are substantially lower than the other nine.
COLOMBIA
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POPULATION: 29.9 M |
IMR: 46 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 26 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 69 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 1.9% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$1,230 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 69% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 0 - 10%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
ADDITIONAL PREVALENCE INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<3rd. percentile Wt/Age) in children aged 6-35 months (1965 & '77), 3-35 months (1986)
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<3rd. percentile Ht/Age) in children aged 6-35 months (1965 & '77), 3-35 months (1986)
TRENDS IN QUARTERLY PREVALENCE OF UNDERWEIGHT
% PREVALENCE - Quarterly prevalence of underweight (<3rd. percentile Wt/Age) in children aged under 5 years in 12 municipalities (DEPTO DE QUINDIO) during 1987
% PREVALENCE - Quarterly prevalence of underweight (<3rd. percentile Wt/Age) in children aged under 5 years in 12 municipalities (DEPTO DE QUINDIO) during 1987
% PREVALENCE - Quarterly prevalence of underweight (<3rd. percentile Wt/Age) in children aged under 5 years in 12 municipalities (DEPTO DE QUINDIO) during 1987
The Republic of Costa Rica occupies an area of 51,100 sq. km. and as of mid-1987 had a total population estimated at 2.8 million, and a population density of 52 persons/sq. km. Approximately half the population live in rural areas. The climate is tropical in the coastal lowlands, and temperate in the highlands. The rainy season is normally from May until October.
Political conditions have been quite stable during the 1980's. A community-based health service had been widely and successfully developed during the seventies which is considered to have contributed to sharply diminishing infant mortality rates (see Infant Mortality) and the lowering of the under 5 mortality rate to an estimated 23 per 1,000 live births in 1987.
When the new government took office in 1982 the two main issues it faced were a domestic economic crisis, and tensions arising from civil strife in the region. In 1986 the incoming president made a commitment to increased social investment particularly in housing and employment-generation. However, some of this shift in emphasis in public expenditure came at the cost of reductions in other social programmes.
Agriculture
The agricultural sector generates approximately 20% of GDP and employs around 28% of the workforce. Expansion in total agricultural output was slow in the 1980's, at an annual rate of l%-2%. Total food production declined between 1980 and 1982, rose in 1984, but has fallen back again since (Food Production Index). In 1983, domestic cereal production and cereal imports increased significantly compared to pre-'83 levels, while the level of cereal aid was maintained. This resulted in sharply increased cereal availability at national level (Cereal Availability). Thereafter (especially since 1985), domestic cereal production, cereal imports, cereal aid, and consequently domestic cereal availability, all declined. Nevertheless, total food availability from all sources (as indicated by per capita Kcals) has been rising slowly since 1981 (see Kcals per day).
The Economy
In 1985 the government embarked on a programme of export promotion and import substitution. During the recent years, exports of coffee and sugar have increasingly contributed to foreign exchange earnings and a balanced trade account. The exchange rate of the colon with the dollar has only slightly declined after 1981 (Exchange Rate) when a sharp devaluation occurred. Foreign debts - outstanding and disbursed - show a steadily rising trend (Debt). The debt service ratio reached a very high value of over 0.5 - i.e. more than 50% of foreign exchange earnings being used to service the debt in 1983; and although lower in 1984 and '85, it remained very high.
In 1983 and again in 1985, Costa Rica rescheduled its foreign debt, and in 1983 and 1986 re-negotiated private bank loans.
Modest economic growth took place during the period 1981-1982. There was a sharp decline in GNP in 1981 and only in 1983 had recovery begun (GNP). Under- and un-employment fell slightly between 1982 and 1984. The effects of inflation in the early 1980's is shown by the fact that the percent of low-income households (50% or more of household income required for food) increased from 40% in 1980 to 60% in 1982, with a significantly higher percentage amongst rural households. This percentage was lowered again to 37% in 1985, when inflation was largely brought more under control.
The consumer price index increased rapidly during the period 1980-87; up to the end of 1982, food prices tended to increase faster than general consumer prices, this trend being reversed after 1982 (see FPI, CPI & FPI/CPI). Between 1982 and 1986, real earnings increased on the average by 3.2% per year. The percent of the minimum wage that the average household had to assign to cover the cost of the basic food basket increased from an estimated 76% in 1980 to 117% in 1982, and fell back to 89% in 1983-84 (Additional Nutrition Indicators). In 1982, 62% of all households did not meet their estimated daily energy requirements, although per capita daily energy supply had increased until 1986 (Kcals per day).
Nutrition
Nutrition conditions show evidence of a substantial improvement since the sixties, in spite of the economic pressures experienced especially in the 1980's. Among pre-school children the prevalence rates of weight deficiency and growth retardation decreased from 13.7% and 24.1% in 1966 to 5.3% and 6.4% in 1982, respectively (Underweight & Stunted). Prevalence of weight deficiency in preschool children was further reduced in 1987 to 2.1%-2.7%, while the prevalence of overweight appears to range between 5.1% and 6.9%. Reduced growth retardation in school-age children is also evident, as the prevalence rates decreased from 20.4% in 1979, 15.4% in 1981, 12.7% in 1983 to 11.3% in 1985.
Urban versus rural differences remain, although less pronounced in 1982 than in 1978 (Additional Nutrition-Related Indicators).
Problems of under- and over-nutrition also affect the adult population. In 1982, 23% of males and 18% of females were found to be undernourished (< 20 Body Mass Index), but 22% of the males and 38% of the females suffered from some degree of obesity (> 25 Body Mass Index).
COSTA RICA
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POPULATION: 2.8 M |
IMR: 18 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 52 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 23 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 2.4% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$1,480 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 51% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 5% - 15%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
ADDITIONAL NUTRITION-RELATED INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<-2 S.D. Wt/Age) in children aged under 6 years. Urban v. Rural
% SALARY - Percentage of minimum salary required to purchase a basic food basket for the average family: 1980-'84
INFANT MORTALITY
INFANT MORTALITY RATE - Infant mortality rate between 1960 - 1985
The Republic of Cuba has a total area of 110,860 sq. km. and a population estimated in mid-1987 at 10.1 million, with a very low average annual rate of growth -0.9%; population density is 92 persons/sq. km. The climate is tropical, tempered by sea breezes. Cuba is subjected to destructive tropical storms periodically. During recent years, Cuba has been suffering from drought conditions, which were particularly serious in 1985.
The development of social and health services has long been a priority in Cuba. Reduction in infant mortality and in the prevalence of low birth weight show how effective such policies have been (see Infant Mortality & Low Birth Weight). The latest available statistics indicate that the level of these indicators is now comparable to that found in the developed world.
The Economy
During the period 1981-86, global social product in real terms increased at an average annual rate of 5.6%, with a high of 12% in 1981 and a low of 1.7% in 1986. Economic growth in Cuba is heavily dependent on foreign exchange earnings from sugar exports, and the annual variation in the economic growth rate is associated with variation in sugar prices on world markets. Export diversification, and raising social production and labour productivity were stressed in the second five-year plan (1981-85), together with economic de-centralization, deregulation of prices and subsidies, and the introduction of new commercial incentives. Under the current five year plan, additional efforts are to be focussed on the expansion of export capacity (except of sugar), diversification of manufacturing based upon the availability of local resources, and substitution of energy sources.
During the period 1981-85, 23.3% of total investments went to the agricultural sector, where infrastructure in the form of irrigation, cold storage, animal breeding facilities, rural roads, etc., was significantly improved as a result. The food processing industry expanded at an average annual rate of 6.1% during this period. The fishing industry also expanded, and fish products contributed to export development as did citrus fruits. The land area under irrigation increased five-fold. Rice yields were up, leading to a 14% increase in total rice production. Significant increases in the production of milk, eggs, fowl, pork, honey, citrus fruits and vegetables were achieved.
Social investment in health and educational facilities, and in housing and in electrification took place, and 630,000 new jobs were created. Expenditure on social programmes was 33% higher in 1985 than in 1980; these programmes cover approximately a tenth of the population.
Agriculture
The average national food intake pattern shows a strong emphasis on animal products. The annual per capita intake (1984-86) of milk and milk products was -152.6 kg.; eggs - 245 kg., while the cereal intake was - 112.1 kg., meat - 80.3 kg.; fresh fruit - 57.7 kg, vegetables - 58.3 kg. Average daily energy availability has been rising steadily since 1981 (Kcals per day) and current protein intake was estimated at 79.6 grams per person per day.
Food production rose between 1980 and 1982 and dipped in 1983. Following a peak in 1984, the production index has fallen since; the 1987 figure is comparable to the 1980 level (Food Production Index). Cereal availability has reflected the annual pattern in production as imports have remained fairly constant (Cereals: Availability, Production & Imports). Cereal output for 1988 was estimated to be some 13% higher than in 1987, following adequate rainfall during the growing season.
Nutrition
Nutritional surveillance data for the period 1984-87 show that in young children overweight and obesity represent a relatively more serious problem than weight deficiency (Wasted & Obese). Undernutrition no longer represents a serious public health problem although the weight for height indicator alone does not reveal information about chronic malnutrition conditions.
Much the same applies to school children. In 1986, 3.7% of primary school children were found to be undernourished or underweight, and 23.5% overweight or obese (Additional Nutrition-Related Indicators). Among secondary school children these percentages were 5.6% and 15.9%, respectively.
CUBA
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POPULATION: 10.1 M |
IMR: 15 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 92 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 19 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 0.9% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): - |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 73% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 0 - 10%
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DEBT RATIO - NOT AVAILABLE
DEBT - NOT AVAILABLE
GDP - (US $ MILLIONS)
EXCHANGE RATE - NOT AVAILABLE
FOOD INDICATORS
FOOD PRODUCTION INDEX
CEREAL AVAILABILITY (1,000 MT)
KCALS PER DAY
CPI - NOT AVAILABLE
FPI/CPI - NOT AVAILABLE
WASTED AND OBESE CHILDREN
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of wasting (<3rd. Percentile Wt/Ht, Cuban Standards) and obesity (>97th. Percentile Wt/Ht) in children aged under 1 year. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of wasting (<3rd. Percentile Wt/Ht, Cuban Standards) and obesity (>97th. Percentile Wt/Ht) in children aged 1-4 year. Health Centre data.
ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
ADDITIONAL NUTRITION-RELATED INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of above or below normal weight-for-height in school-children during 1986; Cuban classification. Health Centre data.
INFANT MORTALITY RATE - Reduction in Infant Mortality Rate between 1969 to 1987
% PREVALENCE - Reduction in Low Birth Weight (<2.500 gms) incidence between 1973 and 1987
The Republic of Guatemala has a total area of 108,889 sq. km., and a total population estimated at 8.4 million in 1987. The population density is approximately 77 persons per sq. km. Thirty-two percent of the population lives in urban areas, and forty-three percent of the total population is indigenous, of whom over eighty percent live in rural areas. The climate is predominantly tropical in the coastal lowlands, but temperate in the highlands. The rainy season is normally from May to October.
In the early part of the 1980's Guatemala had a number of different regimes and experienced a significant level of violence and internal unrest. In 1984 elections were held for an Assembly which eventually drafted a new constitution and electoral laws for the 1985 presidential elections. Since then Guatemala's political isolation has been reduced and financial aid from the US and Europe has increased. Unemployment and inflation are presently rising.
Agriculture
The agricultural sector generates approximately 25% of gross domestic product and absorbs about 50% of the economically active population. Total agricultural production has shown no growth since 1982. After an initial increase during 1980-'82, food production has steadily declined (see Food Production Index). During 1980-82, total cereal production rose while cereal imports fell (Cereals: Production). Total cereal production, cereal imports and cereal aid all peaked in 1986, but the first two dropped sharply in 1987. Cereals contributed 65% of the average daily energy supply in 1986.
The drop in cereals imported in 1987 may be partly due to the devaluation of the quetzale in late 1986 (Exchange Rate). Total food availability (as Kcals per day) changed little over the period from 1980 to 1986.
Drought affected the development of the first season cereal crops early in 1988; torrential rains and flooding caused damage to the second season crops in September.
The Economy
Falling international prices for Guatemala's primary exports have reduced import capacity during 1980-85. The high cost of external debt servicing (Debt Ratio), reduced foreign exchange earnings and capital flight, were somewhat mitigated by increased use of IMF credit during 1980-84 (IMF). Guatemala's foreign debt has been steadily rising (Debt); a partial debt rescheduling in 1986, resulted in debt-servicing costs of about 40% of export revenues.
The Guatemalan economy was chronically recessive during 1980-85; the average annual decline in real GNP was significant (GNP). In 1986-87 only 37% of the economically active population was estimated to be fully employed, and 57% underemployed to various degrees. The annual rate of inflation, based upon the consumer price index, increased from 0.2% in 1982 to 37% in 1986, and the annual change in real earnings from 6% to -18% over the same period. During 1980-83 food prices increased faster than the general consumer price index, but this trend was substantially reversed in 1984 (FPI/CPI).
Nutrition
Nutrition conditions do not seem to be improving in Guatemala in so far as the available studies, which are not strictly comparable, would indicate. In 1965, 36.5% of rural pre-school children were found to be weight deficient and 60% to suffer from growth retardation. By 1980 these percentages were found to be 43.6% and 59.7%, respectively, and by 1987 33.5% and 57.8% (children between 3 and 36 months only), respectively (Underweight & Stunted).
Undernutrition affects relatively more rural and indigenous populations, and tends to be more prevalent in the Northern, Central and South-Western regions of the country (Additional Prevalence Indicators). Among school-children (6-9 years old), 37.4% were found to be suffering from growth retardation in 1986.
GUATEMALA
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POPULATION: 8.4 M |
IMR: 60 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 77 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 103 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 2.9% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$930 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 41% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 15% - 25%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
ADDITIONAL PREVALENCE INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<-2 S.D. Wt/Age) in children aged 3-36 months. Urban v. Rural 1987
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<-2 S.D. Wt/Age) in children by age group. 1987
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<-2 S.D. Wt/Age) in children aged 3-36 months by region. 1987
With an area of 10,900 sq. kilometres, Jamaica is the third largest Caribbean island. This former British colony gained independence in 1962. Amongst the Commonwealth countries in the Caribbean, Jamaica has the most diversified economy. There is a significant dependence on bauxite and alumina exports and tourism. Agricultural products are mainly sugar and banana.
Rapid growth occurred in the 1960's and early 70's, followed by a decline in the post-oil crisis recession. Mainly due to the rise in the price of oil, but also because of other internal inflationary factors, a cumulative fall of 16% in real GDP was experienced between 1974 and 1980. Consumer prices increased by over 28% in 1980. Significant aid from the IMF and the USA together with Government strategies for increased export of manufactured goods, import substitution, private sector investment and promotion of the tourist industry, all helped to achieve a real economic growth rate of 1.8% in 1981. This trend of slow recovery continued until 1983. An average growth rate of 1.7% was achieved during this period. The rates of unemployment and inflation were reduced by 1.5% and over 23%, respectively, in 1981. While the inflation rate fell to 6.5% in 1982, it rose again to 16.7% in 1983 and to as high as 31.2% in 1984. Inflation was subsequently reduced to 25.7% and 15.1% in '85 and '86, respectively. 1984 and 1985 witnessed declines in GNP due to external as well as internal factors (see GNP). In 1985, emigration increased by about 28% over the figure for 1984.
The agricultural sector - while high on the Government's list of priorities - has long experienced major problems. Substantial declines in food production (Food Production Index) since 1979 resulted in increased imports. Production of the most important export crop, sugar, had steadily declined to less than 200,000 metric tons a year in the last five years (compared to 508,000 tons in 1965) in spite of market opportunities. Disease, poor tillage practices, milling problems, and poor weather contributed to the decline. Foreign currency reserves were also affected: as the country relies heavily on the export of bauxite and alumina for most of its foreign currency earnings, the world recession and the drop in demand had a significant impact on the economy. Food, raw materials and fuel had to be imported at increasing expense during the early eighties.
A programme was launched in October 1983 to encourage domestic food production both for internal consumption and for export. The modernization of the agricultural sector contributed to an 11.7% increase in the production of cereals in 1983 over the previous year (Cereals: Production). In 1983 the Government agreed strategies with the IMF to reduce the size of the budget deficit. By November 1983 the official and the 'parallel' market exchange rates were unified with a sharp devaluation (43%) of the Jamaican dollar resulting (Exchange Rate). Following successive devaluations in 1984 and 1985 the J$ continued to lose ground against the US$. The Government stabilized the rate at US$1 = J$5.5 during 1986/'87, to be further devalued in 1987/88. The poorest sectors of the community were affected by this and many associated factors, such as: increased taxation, elimination of all subsidies and maintaining expenditure in line with inflation, rising unemployment rates, etc.. Food prices (FPI) rose between 50% and 100% following the removal of the subsidies. This, together with the increase in the price of fuel, led to hardships and resulted in public demonstrations in 1984 and early 1985. In 1986 a loan of US$16.2 million was approved by the IDE to the Agriculture Credit Bank, to be given to farmers with the aim of creating employment for the rural population and increasing food production and thereby reducing the cost of food importation. External financial support for development programmes came also from the IMF, bilateral donors, EEC and the World Bank. The Government was able to benefit from a fall in world oil prices and reduce the import cost of crude oil by 45% in 1986, which further reduced the deficit in the country's balance of trade. The balance of payments during 1985/86 recorded a surplus of US$61.2 million. However, due to decreased export earnings, the country's external debt ratio (Debt Ratio) had risen substantially by 1985. Reduction in food prices, raising public expenditure, lowering interest rates and halving inflation to 7% during 1987 and restricting wage increases to 10% were included in a J$5.8 billion expansionary budget for 1987.
The strongest hurricane recorded this century was responsible for causing enormous damage to the island during August 1988: crops - mainly bananas, coffee and vegetables - were largely destroyed, livestock were killed and over one-quarter of the population seriously affected. FAO reported (Nov, 1988) widespread shortages of poultry and bananas, the population's main sources of protein and carbohydrate.
Nutrition
Two studies provide information on the trend in nutritional status between 1978 and 1985. The prevalence of underweight in preschool children has changed little over this period (Underweight Children). If anything, the prevalence of Grade I malnutrition (Gomez classification) had increased slightly by 1985. Similarly, no strong differences exist between the urban and rural groups. From the more recent study, parish differences may be examined (Additional Prevalence Indicators). While most parishes show an underweight prevalence of between 8% and 13%, two are particularly notable as being much higher than this: St. Catherine's and Manchester.
Quarterly prevalence trends are also shown for the last quarter of 1986 and the four quarters of 1987. These are for Gomez Grades II & III. In this short series there is no strong evidence for seasonality.
JAMAICA
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POPULATION: 2.4 M |
IMR: 18 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 218 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 23 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 1.5% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$840 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 51% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 10% - 20%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
ADDITIONAL PREVALENCE INDICATORS
QUARTERLY PREVALENCE
% PREVALENCE - Quarterly prevalence of most severly malnourished children aged under 5 years. Gomez Grade II + III.
The Republic of Nicaragua has an area of 139,000 sq. km., and a total population of 3.5 million (1987). The population density is around 27 persons per sq. km. Just over fifty-eight percent of the population lives in urban areas. The population growth rate averaged 3.4% per annum (1980-86). The climate is generally tropical, with a rainy season between May and October.
Agriculture
The agricultural sector generates 20-23% of GDP and employs approximately 40% of the labour force. This latter percentage has been decreasing at about 1% per year during the 1980's. Nicaragua is not yet self-sufficient in the main staple foods. Cereal production rose overall between 1980 and 1985; cereal availability was erratic and reflected import peaks as well as production figures (Cereals: Production and Imports). Production and availability fell substantially in 1986 and again in 1987. In 1986 the value added generated by the agricultural sector fell for the third consecutive year due to a long drought in the northwestern region of the country, lack of inputs and machinery, and the destruction of rural infrastructure and population displacement as a result of the civil war.
Overall, per caput agricultural production declined throughout the period 1980-87 (see Food Production Index). Extensive damage was caused to crops, livestock and infrastructure following the major hurricane in October 1988. FAO reported (Nov) that the sugar, cocoa, bananas and first season cereal crops, were all badly damaged by the hurricane. The second season cereal crop -almost ready for harvesting - had also been affected.
The Economy
During the first half of the 1980's little economic growth took place in Nicaragua. Gross domestic product at constant prices fell 4.5% between 1984 and 1986. The consumer price index increased more than 15-fold between 1980 and 1986, and the food price index 11-fold during that same period, less than CPI, partly because of government- controlled prices of basic food items (CPI & FPI). As a result real earnings have decreased from year to year (1982-83: by 12.7%; 1985: by 4.3%), and the percent of the minimum wage that urban households need to assign to purchase a basic consumption basket jumped from an estimated 68% in 1983 to 225% in 1986.
Nicaragua had consistently a negative trade balance which tended to fluctuate yearly between US$600 and US$900 million (1983-85). The official exchange rate between the US dollar and the cordoba decreased from 0.10 in 1984 to 0.014 in 1987 (Exchange Rate); however, the cordoba in the open parallel market decreased considerably more in value. In early 1988 the exchange rate structure was overhauled and a new official exchange rate of 10 new cordobas per US dollar was established.
In 1982 Mexico replaced the US as the principal source of imports, while the US along with Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany represented the main export markets for Nicaragua's products.
Nutrition
In 1982 it was found that 27% of preschool children were underweight, as compared to 17.1% in 1966 (Underweight & Stunted). This indicates that child nutritional status deteriorated over the period 1966-82, but data to estimate more recent trends are not available. However, considering current difficulties and the other available indicators (and bearing in mind associations seen in other countries) prevalence of malnutrition may well be continuing to rise.
In 1986 the prevalence of growth retardation among school-children (6-9 years of age) was 22.0%, with regional differences ranging from 15.3% to 29.5% (Regional Prevalence).
Urban/Rural differences have been found in growth retardation in school-aged children in Region I (22.2% urban versus 33.4% rural) and in Region II (19.2% urban versus 25.6% rural). Male-female differences in the growth retardation prevalence were also found: 24.9% for males versus 19.2% for females; these sex differences were consistent among all regions.
NICARAGUA
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POPULATION: 3.5 M |
IMR: 63 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 27 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 99 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 3.4% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$790 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 58% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 10% - 20%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
REGIONAL PREVALENCE OF STUNTING
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 6-9 years: 1966. By Region
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 6-9 years: 1986. By Region and Sex.
The Republic of Peru has a population estimated in 1987 at 20.7 million, and growing at an average rate of 2.3% per year. Three distinct regions have different ecological conditions: the arid Pacific coast, the elevated Andean region, and the region to the east of the Andes which is partly semi-arid but also includes rain forests. Peru suffered from several drought periods during the 1980's: 1979-80 in the highland and coastal regions; 1983 in the southern areas but with heavy rains and flooding in the North, and 1986 in the coastal regions of the North, but flooding in potato-growing areas around Lake Titicaca. Particularly the 1983 drought and floods aggravated the economic recession which was compounded by falling export prices which started in 1982 and continued in 1983. Economic recovery did not fully start until 1986. Even so, current under- and unemployment problems are serious, as it was estimated in 1986 that only a third of the economically active population is fully employed.
Agriculture
Despite an increase in the area under cultivation (mainly in the Eastern and Sierra regions), total agricultural output did not increase to any significant degree between 1970 and 1985. Expenditure on food imports was increasing and at the same time there was a decrease in export earnings from the country's cash crops. For example, the contribution of the major export crops, i.e. sugar, cotton and coffee to total income from exports had fallen to 7.7% in 1985 as compared with 29% in 1976. Following the 1979-80 drought the food production index increased between 1981 and 1982, but then dropped again in 1983, as a result of a combination of drought followed by floods (see Food Production Index). Total cereal availability and per capita calorie availability decreased accordingly in 1983. The total output for '83 was only 50% of that for a decade earlier. With favourable weather conditions, production recovered in 1984 (Cereals: Production). The agricultural sector registered an annual growth rate of nearly 13% for 1984, and contributed more than any other sector to the recovery of growth which occurred in that year (GNP). A good harvest was had in 1985. In 1986, floods and drought returned to affect the potato and cotton crops, respectively. However, the main cereal crop was relatively unaffected and in fact production increased very slightly on the previous year's figure, and as imports were up substantially, cereal availability increased. Owing to the establishment of guaranteed prices and an easing of credit facilities, the agricultural sector maintained growth in 1985, '86 and '87. The coarse grains crop for 1988 was comparable to the previous year's, however rice production was down by around 15%.
The Economy
The economy suffered during the seventies from recession, falling export prices, increased import needs, a large external debt, and the negative impact of periodic droughts and floods on the agricultural sector. The reasonable rate of growth in the economy achieved between the fifties and the mid-seventies could not be sustained into the eighties. It was only in 1984, after a poor performance between 1980 and 1982, and a substantial decline in 1983, that GNP showed signed of recovery (GNP). This was maintained up to 1986. The increase in GNP reflected the growth of trade, in the construction industry, and to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. A continuing devaluation of the inti against the US$ took place during the eighties (Exchange Rate) and in particular in 1985. A new currency unit, equivalent to 1,000 old units, was introduced in May 1985, as an anti-inflationary measure. By early 1986, it was officially announced that the inti would not be devalued further at that time. It became a matter of policy to retain an inflated exchange rate in order to stabilize consumer prices and to ensure that inputs to manufacturing and agriculture did not become unobtainable due to the already high and rising costs (CPI, and FPI).
The relative cost of food decreased between 1981 and mid-1982; for the next two years it rose either at a slightly higher rate than general consumer prices, or at approximately the same rate (FPI/CPI). In early 1987, the exchange rate adjustment began once more, although in a more controlled manner. Price controls were also somewhat relaxed. There was a 39% devaluation in late 1987 and the official exchange rate was set at 33 intis to the dollar. The budget deficit had been increasing at a considerable rate in 1980 and 1981. The deficit in 1982, with some assistance from the IMF (IMF), reached a more modest 4% of GDP, but doubled in 1983 following the poor production figures of that year. Foreign borrowing increased to finance the deficit in 1983 (Debt). Improving conditions in 1984 and 1985 ensured that the deficit was halved. The debt service ratio, which had been very high in 1980, and increased further in 1981, was about 10% by 1985 (Debt Ratio).
Nutrition
Available nutritional data are not strictly comparable over time (Underweight Children), but some tentative inferences can be made. Averaging the Urban and Rural prevalence figures for 1984, and again the combined Urban/Rural values for '87/88, indicates an increase in underweight prevalence from less than 10% to around 14% over this period. The indications are thus that nutrition has suffered during recent years. This is consistent with the price inflation data (as noted in the “First Report on the World Nutrition Situation”, p24, food prices in relation to minimum wages rose sharply in the mid-'80's.)
Urban/Rural differences were pronounced in 1984. The prevalence of stunting is very high in rural areas, thought not nearly as marked in the urban districts and towns, especially in Lima Metropolitana (Regional Prevalence).
PERU
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POPULATION: 20.7 M |
IMR: 89 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 16 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 126 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 2.3% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$1,090 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 69% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 10% - 20%
|
ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
REGIONAL PREVALENCE OF STUNTING
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 60-71 months in Selva Alta Region. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 60-71 months in Sierra Sur Region. Health Centre data
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 60-71 months in Lima Metropolitana Health Centre data
Uruguay has a total land area of 176,215 sq. km., and a population estimated in 1987 at almost 3.1 million, resulting in a low population density (18 persons/sq. km.). Uruguay has the lowest population growth rate (0.4%/year) in Latin America. As with the rest of Latin America, Uruguay suffered an economic recession in 1981-84, and it was not until 1986 that real GDP increased for the first time this decade. The economic recession not-withstanding, Uruguay maintains one of the highest levels of per capita income in Latin America (US$1,900). The majority of the population (85%) lives in urban areas.
Agriculture
The agricultural sector generates approximately 10% of GDP, and absorbs 15% of the workforce. Principal products are meat (beef) and wool which are labour-intensive in production. Meat and wool are also the principal export items, and Brazil is the major export market for meat. Food production increased sharply in 1981, maintained a high level until 1983, and declined back to the 1980 level in 1984 (see Food Production Index). Food availability (as Kcals per capita per day) shows a slight declining trend post 1983, although it remains high compared to some other countries in the region.
Exports were stimulated when, in 1984, a trade agreement with Brazil and Argentina established a free-trade system and eliminated tariffs among the three countries. A comparatively small sector produces crops such as wheat, maize, rice and oilseeds. With the exception of rice, the production of these food items has been declining during the 1980's, primarily due to reduced acreage under cultivation. Eighty percent of rice production is for exports.
CPI began to rise rapidly in 1983 (CPI), and as total food production and cereal availability started to fall in 1983/84 (Food Production & Cereal Availability), food prices showed a tendency to increase faster than general prices (FPI/CPI). This situation continued through most of 1984, but changed in late 1984 where food prices declined relative to general prices. By late 1985 this down turn was once again reversed and the relative price of food increased. A strong - approximately annual - cycle is evident in this index, at least from 1983 onwards.
The Economy
There is some evidence that suggests that in Montevideo (with more than 40% of the total population) there was a process of increased income concentration before the 1980's. Perhaps as a result, the percent of households below the poverty line (incomes insufficient to cover the cost of a basic consumption basket) increased between 1963 and 1984 from 9.4% to 25%. In the latter year it was found that 42% of children lived in households classified as poor.
As a result of the economic recovery which reduced unemployment and raised real incomes (though inflation accelerated), by 1986 the percent of poor households was reduced to 20%. Between 1980 and 1984, the number of hours of work required per month for the average household to purchase enough food to meet its energy requirements increased from 58 to 75, while falling to 63 in 1986 and 59 in 1987. Over a similar period, the actual cost of purchasing 1,000 Kcals has risen very steeply (Nutrition-Related Indicators).
During the recessionary period export revenues fell by 30% due to significant declines in the world price for beef and protectionist measures imposed by other beef-producing countries. Uruguay devalued its currency by 50% at the end of 1982 (Exchange Rate), and more than doubled its foreign debt between 1981 and 1983 (Debt), which continued upwards through to 1985, as did the debt service ratio (Debt Ratio). During the economic recovery spurred by a 27% increase in exports between 1985 and 1986, the increase in foreign debt slowed down as did the de facto devaluation of the currency while foreign earnings rose. The government was also able to meet the IMF-proposed economic targets for 1986 (2% growth rate; less than 5% budget deficit; and 50% annual inflation rate).
Nutrition
There has been a moderate reduction in the prevalence of underweight in preschool children during the eighties. The prevalence rates of weight deficiency and of growth retardation in preschool children attended to by the public health system show a slight improvement overall between 1980-87 (Underweight & Stunted Children). The later survey may not be strictly comparable with the earlier ones.
Further evidence (from the same studies) that nutritional improvement in the under 5's is taking place is provided by the fact that in 1982 6.5% of the children suffered from acute-or chronic undernutrition (low height-for-age combined with low weight-for-height) while in 1987 this percent was reduced by half (3.2%).
In 1987 among children less than 6 years old, 7.4% were found to be weight deficient (< -2 S.D.) and 11.9% overweight (i.e. >+ 1 S.D.). 15.9% showed evidence of growth retardation (<-2 S.D.).
Among older school children the prevalence rates for moderate (-1 to -2 S.D.) and severe (<-2 S.D.) growth retardation were found (in 1987) to be 15.8% and 4.0% respectively.
URUGUAY
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POPULATION: 3.1 M |
IMR: 27 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 18 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 32 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 0.4% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$1,900 |
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PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 85% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 0 - 10%
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ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
TRENDS IN NUTRITION-RELATED INDICATORS
COST/1000 KCALS - Percentage change in the cost of purchasing 1,000 Kcals.
NO. HOURS - Change in the number of hours of work required to satisfy the energy requirements of a typical family.
WASTED CHILDREN
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of wasting (<80% Wt/Ht) in children aged under 5 years. Health Centre data.
Venezuela has a total land area of 921,050 sq. km. and a population estimated at 18.3 million (mid-1987), giving a population density of 20 persons/sq. km. The annual growth rate of the population is 2.9%. Around 89% of the population lives in urban areas. Thirty-four percent of the population is economically active.
Notwithstanding the economic recovery in recent years, poverty seems to have deepened between 1984 and 1987. In 1984 it was estimated that 11.0% of all households lived in extreme poverty, and this percent increased to 21.1% in 1987. This trend correlates well with the accelerated increase in the general consumer and food price indices during this period - although not on a par with the hyper-inflation experienced by some other countries in the region - probably as a result of an expanding money supply together with relaxed price control (see CPI, FPI). Food prices increased considerably faster than the general price index (FPI/CPI) beginning in 1983, and food is an important component of the minimum consumption basket which determines the poverty line. This may perhaps explain why the percent of households with poverty conditions increased during 1984-87. By contrast, the unemployment rate actually declined from 13.4% in 1984 to 8.5% in 1987.
Agriculture
Only about 15% of the workforce is employed in the agricultural sector which generates a modest 7% of GDP. Although food production fell somewhat since 1983 (Food Production Index), growth in the agricultural sector overall proceeded at an average of 2% a year during 1980-84, and accelerated thereafter at approximately 6% per year. This has made it possible to reduce substantially the portion of food needs covered by imports (1980-84: 40%; 1986: 20%, Cereals: Imports). Cereal production increased during the period 1984-87, allowing a significant fall in cereal imports starting in 1985.
A 10 year agricultural development programme started in 1984 which aimed at a large expansion in land area under cultivation and various improvements in farming infrastructure contributed. Nevertheless, total cereal availability which peaked in 1985, fell in 1986, - following the decline in imports, before production could compensate - recovering partially in 1987 (Cereal Availability).
Available dietary energy supply (as Kcals per day) showed a slight downward trend between 1981 and 1986, including during 1984-85 when total cereal availability was relatively high (Cereal Availability). However, cereals contribute only about 20% to the average daily diet in Venezuela.
The Economy
The economic growth experienced in the seventies was largely reversed in the eighties following the sharp fall in international oil prices. During 1981-84 the economy tended to contract: the average annual growth rate equaled -1.7%; GNP fell between 1980 and 1985 (GNP). By 1983, the government had introduced a wage freeze, a reduction in public spending, withdrawal of subsidies on a wide range of goods, and increased taxes.
This trend in GNP started to be reversed in 1985, partly due to a sharp devaluation of the bolivar in 1984 (Exchange Rate), further aided by increased petroleum earnings, and a balance of payments surplus. As the oil industry provides around 95% of export earnings, this ensures that the internal economy is driven - to a significant degree - by the international market price of oil.
Late in 1986, the government introduced a new package of economic measures which included a further 48% devaluation of the bolivar which was expected to add to inflation. Included was also, however, an increase in the minimum wage, and prices of over a hundred basic goods were frozen. 1986 and 1987 also saw several general wage increases.
Nutrition
The prevalence of wasting in the population under 15 years of age is estimated from health-centre data to have changed comparatively little between 1984 and 1987, except probably for a peak in 1985 (Wasted Children). This relative stability may be attributable to general increases in household income (resulting from reduced un-employment and general economic growth as well as negotiated wage increases) which at least partially offset price increases. Various group feeding programmes run by the National Institute of Nutrition aim to provide nutritional protection for vulnerable population groups. These include school feeding, distribution of food packages at the household level, feeding programmes for preschoolers and pregnant women, and popular and industrial cafeterias.
It is noticeable that in 1985 when the prevalence of wasted children peaked, just as the relative price of food was rapidly rising, there was also a tendency to a reduction in the prevalence of overweight (>90th. percentile) in children (Quarterly Prevalence).
VENEZUELA
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POPULATION: 18.3 M |
IMR: 36 |
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POPULATION DENSITY: 20 per sq. km. |
U5MR: 45 |
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POP. GROWTH RATE: 2.9% per annum |
GNP (PER CAPITA): US$2,920 |
|
PERCENTAGE URBAN POP.: 89% |
ESTIMATED PREVALENCE LEVEL UNDERWEIGHT CHILDREN: 0 - 10%
|
ADDITIONAL FOOD & ECONOMIC INDICATORS
CEREALS (1,000 MT)
IMF CREDIT (US $ MILLIONS)
TRENDS IN QUARTERLY PREVALENCE
% PREVALENCE - Quarterly prevalence of above normal weight-for-height (>90 percentile Wt/Ht) in children aged under 15 years. Health Centre data.
ADDITIONAL PREVALENCE INDICATORS
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of underweight (<-2 S.D. Wt/Age) in children aged 0-9 Years in 1981-82. Health Centre data.
% PREVALENCE - Prevalence of stunting (<-2 S.D. Ht/Age) in children aged 0-9 Years in 1981-82. Health Centre data.
