Adeyokunnu, Tomilayo (1981): Women and Agriculture in Nigeria. African Training and Research Centre for Women, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, 43 pp.
The report describes the role of women in agriculture in Nigeria, based on a literature study and field studies in 3 different areas located in the western, eastern and northern parts of the country. Nigerian women are to a great extent involved in food production, farming and trading. The relative emphasis on these activities varies among the ethnic groups. Yoruba women of western Nigeria are more involved in food processing and in trade than in farming, which is the main occupation for Ibo women in eastern Nigeria. However, in addition to ethnic factors, economic stimuli appear to be a major determinant of whether particular groups of women are farmers or traders. Once men are involved in non farm operations, the women take over farm operations for home and for sale. The Moslem religion in the north restricts women's activities. Here, the main occupation of women is trading.
Although many women are engaged in food processing, this is not regarded as the main activity. This is because it is linked to farming or trading. Many women process their own farm produce. Alternatively, many women buy farm produce from others and then process it for sale. Women are often responsible for their own and their children's feeding, clothing, medical and ceremonial expenses. Very often, the women finance their husbands. It was reported that women often gave their husbands money for agricultural purposes.
All respondents indicated that they did not have access to credit. Funds to enlarge the scale of operations in farming, in processing and in trade, were lacking. Health, nutrition and child-care problems encountered included an inadequate number of doctors, nurses and other paramedical personnel; inadequate hospitals, dispensaries; lack of knowledge of modern home management practices and overwork in the home.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/MARK/HANDL/CHI CA
Aklilu, Delavit A. (1983): Appropriate Technology for Women in Food Production. Prepared for Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production. FAO, Rome, 17 pp.
This report discusses the impact of technology on rural women. It includes successful and unsuccessful cases and discusses constraints to the implantation of appropriate technology. It is apparent that the case studies indicating successful experiences with "appropriately" introduced technology have some fundamental similarities. This consistency is reflected in the target groups' motivation, in their level of organization and in the provisions made for the participation of the beneficiaries at different levels of the project development, from its formulation and design to its implementation and evaluation. In fact, the project documents of the successful case studies put more emphasis on the organizational effort and institution building than on the efficacy of the technological intervention.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/REV/PROD/MARK/HANDL/TECH/MODERN/ANIMAL
Anbarasan, Karuna (1985): Factors that influence the Role and Status of Fisherwomen. Report from the Bay of Bengal Project, FAO, Madras, India, 67 pp.
The report is based on a year's study of the situation of women in three fishing villages in Tamil Nadu. This is one of the pilot studies of the Bay of Bengal Project to gain information in order to improve living conditions of women from small-scale marine fishing communities. Nearly 26% of the fisherwomen in Tamil Nadu are involved in marketing and handling of fish. Fisherwomen's involvement in these tasks depend on their socio-economic status. In families without any productive assets the fisherwomen have to help earn the family income by marketing of fish. Fisherwomen from families which own a variety of nets and boats, are usually not directly involved in fish marketing; they act as supervisors and hire women to do the actual marketing. The report includes a section on the health and nutrition conditions of the fisher-women. It is stated that nutritional deficiency among fisherwomen is greater than among men, due to the fact that it is customary for women to eat only after serving men and children, and that fish, the only cheap protein available, is served mainly to men and children. These statements are, however, very poorly documented. The extent of malnutrition in the population is not measured.
The report concludes that earning an income is a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for improvements in women's status. It is suggested that the formation of small women's associations would also be necessary. These could help in redefining the role of both men and women.
FISH/ASIA/FIELD/MARK/NUTR/WO HEAL
Bantje, Han (1980): Seasonal Variations in Birth weight Distribution in Ikwiriri Village. BRALUP Research Paper, No. 43 (New Series) University of Dar es-Salaam. Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania. 23 pp.
Examines seasonal variations in birth weight distribution over a seven-year period in Ikwiriri and correlates these with rainfall, female labour output in agriculture and food availability. The findings revealed that average birth weight responds to the combined intensity of labour output and food availability. It was also discovered that changes in average birth weight were as late as just before delivery. This was very significant since women tend to work almost to the onset of labour pains. The data also revealed that even when food was plentiful but agricultural labour was also demanding, low birth weight was more common. Alternatively, when food was low due to bad harvests but with resulting low level of agricultural activity, birth weights tended to be high. The paper therefore concludes that labour output is the more dominant variable affecting birth weight, and that availability of food would be the more dominant factor only if food scarcity was a prolonged phenomenon.
The implications of this study are obvious. Low birth weight is one of the chief causes of infant mortality. If low birth weight is significantly affected by the mother's labour output, there is a great need to look into the sexual division of labour at the household level.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/WO LO/WO HEAL
BAM, Zambia (1981): Some Observations on Households run by Women alone. In Ward 3 (chief Chungu's area) Luwingu District - Northern province. Luwinger, Zambia.
Female heads of households represent about 12-15% of all households in the area. The main economic activity in the area is 1) slash and burn cultivation of millet, beans, groundnuts, peas, various cucurbits and cassava, 2) semipermanent cultivation of cassava, 3) permanent cash crop cultivation, 4) fishing (petty).
Women were to a certain degree helping in cash crop cultivation, but women from female-headed households only engaged in 1) and 2). Fishing was too time-consuming and single women were not accepted in the groups of married women. Cash crop cultivation was not feasible, since their households did not have enough food to eat. Women from female-headed households needed male assistance for the slash and burn cultivation. Such help was bartered against beer, brewed from millet. Beer brewing was also these women's main source of income. Beer brewing is often a very insecure enterprise, with frequent failures. Skill is needed. Casual employment was hard to get.
On questions about food availability in the households, 15% of male heads of households answered that they did not have enough food, whereas in female-headed households 90% estimated that they did not have enough food.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/N PLO/SUBS/WHH
Batliwala, Srilatha (1982): Rural Energy Scarcity and Nutrition; A New Perspective. Economic and Political Weekly (India) 17 (9): 329-333.
This paper emphasizes the need to concentrate the efforts aimed at meeting the energy needs of populations, not only by increasing production, but also by reducing calorie expenditure through appropriate technology. Due to the lack of information on the calorie costs of different tasks which rural people are involved in, estimations of such costs were performed. Calorie expenditure for men, women and children was calculated on the basis of these estimates as well as time-allocation studies from a field study in India. Such data naturally have to be treated with caution. They imply a heavy energy load on women. In this context, appropriate technology may be an important contribution in efforts to bridge the gap between available energy for consumption and energy expenditure.
AGRIC/ASIA/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/WO LO
Bério, Ann-Jacqueline (1984a): "The Analysis of Time Allocation and Activity Patterns in Nutrition and Rural Development Planning. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 6 (1): 53-68.
The paper presents three large-scale time allocation surveys, from The Central African Republic, Nepal and the Ivory Coast, and illustrates the main findings. The author has particularly been involved in the analysis of data from the Ivory Coast (household food consumption and budgetary survey in 1979). It points to the important role played by women and children in the production of food. Comparison between Nepal and Ivory Coast data reveals striking similarities, despite differences in the socio-cultural and economic systems. In both countries, women carry about 2/3 of the total work burden in the household, close to 90% of the domestic activities, and perform more than 70% of the subsistence economy activities.
In Nepal, where time-use data on children were collected for ages down to 5 years, children contribute substantially to the household work (nearly 3 hrs. a day for children aged 5-9, and more than 6 hrs a day for children in the 10-14 year age group). Female children work more than male children. The author points to the dependence on girls' labour being a major reason for keeping girls out of school. Women in Nepal and the Ivory Coast generate less than 20% of the cash income. However, when home production and outside cash earnings are taken together, women's contribution to the total household is substantial. In Nepal it was calculated to be 50% for women, 44% for men, and 6% for children. In the Ivory Coast, it was found that women spend 70% of the external cash earnings, most of this was spent on food. Women's contribution to the household food supply in the Ivory Coast showed that 54% of the calories were provided by them. However, this shows that also men are contributing substantially to the household food.
The data examined indicate that rural modernization for improving productivity tends to increase women's workload and reduce men's. Women's time is seen as a scarce production resource. If new activities are planned, e.g. through a development project, it may imply that women will have to drop some of their present activities or reduce their efforts in these, or the planned activities may not be taken on, due to lack of time. Guidelines for time-allocation studies prior to project planning are suggested. The author points to the usefulness of employing time-use studies for calculating energy requirements. It is indicated that the WHO/FAO reports on protein and energy requirements may have underestimated energy expenditures of women at given activity levels.
AGRIC/AFR/ASIA/FIELD/PROJ/GENDER/WO LO
Bério, Ann-Jacqueline (1984b): The Use of Time Allocation Data in Developing Countries: from Influencing Development Policies to Estimating Energy Requirements. Paper delivered at the International Research Group on Time Budgets and Social Activities. Helsinki, August 1984. FAO, Rome. 35 pp.
This paper analyses time-use data from a national survey in the rural area of the Ivory Coast. Some of the data have earlier been presented in Food and Nutrition Bulletin (Bério, 1983). A more detailed presentation is given of data collection methods and results. The total workload was consistently higher for females than males in all age groups from 6 yrs. and on. The workload seemed to peak at the age of 25-29 yrs. Part of the paper is devoted to the presentation of estimates of energy-expenditure of adult males and females. A "physical activity index" (PAI) is calculated by synthesizing all the individuals' daily activities and their related energy costs. The results show that women in general have a higher PAI than men, and that the women in general have a higher activity than what is estimated to be average values for standard levels of physical activity according to FAO/WHO expert committees.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/GENDER/WO LO
Bettles, F.M. (1980): Women's Access to Agricultural Extension Services in Botswana, Women's Extension Unit, Ministry of Agriculture. Gabarone, Botswana.
This paper discusses women's role in agriculture and gives an outline of women's extension programmes in the past and future. In Botswana, crops are mainly grown for food, while live-stock is the wealth and status symbol which provides cash. Traditionally, food production has been the responsibility of women while the men and boys spent most of their time with the cattle. The report discusses the constraints that female-headed households face:
A post as Agricultural Officer/Women's Extension was created in the mid '70s. Areas of work were: rising awareness of the need to involve women in general extension work, forming farmers' committees, working with existing women's groups, informal groups, and encouraging women to attend courses.Access to draught power. Since men take care of the cattle, female-headed households have less access. In a land survey conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, it was shown that 59% of female-headed households had no access to draught power, compared to 28% for male headed households. For the households not having access to draught power one of the main constraints to optimal production is the inability to plough at the best time, being second in line.
To implement women's extension on a national scale has met with difficulties. Many of the people responsible thought that women were the clientele of community development officers; thus seeing only their domestic role, rather than the economic.
AGRIC/ANIMAL/AFR/FIELD/PROD/GENDER/WHH
Bleiberg, Fanny, Thierry A. Brun, Samuel Goihman and Emile Gouba (1980); Duration of Activities and Energy Expenditure of Female Farmers in Dry and Rainy Seasons in Upper Volta. British J. Nutr. 43: 71-82.
The daily activity pattern and energy expenditure of fifteen female farmers in Upper Volta were assessed in the dry and the rainy seasons. In the rainy season women spent about 4.5 hours daily on agricultural work and walking to and from the fields, whereas in the dry season time was dedicated to cotton handicrafts. In addition to the burden of agricultural work in the rainy season, women spent a considerable amount of time in washing (since clothes got dirty in the fields), and in picking wild leaves and fruits which were mostly available in this part of the year.
The mean energy output rose from 9.7 MJ (2320 Kcal) in the dry season to 12.1 MJ (2890 Kcal) in the wet season. The results suggest that during the rainy season, the energy requirements of female farmers are much higher than usually estimated.
It was shown that the time spent on food preparation, cooking and tending of children was considerably reduced during the rainy season. Cooking was reduced to one meal per day, which was dinner. Breakfast was usually made of the scraps from last nights dinner; the meal at noon was omitted since most women worked in the fields.
These data were compared with other studies including energy intake and changes in body weight for female farmers in West Africa. Such comparisons suggest that the energy output during the wet season is frequently above the energy intake.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/NUTR/LINK/SEASON/WO LO/N PLO
Boud, C.A. (1974): "Women's involvement in Agriculture in Botswana. Ministry of Agriculture, Gabarone, Botswana.
Six areas in South Eastern Botswana were surveyed with a view to put forward recommendations for more efficient agricultural service operations. The women are regarded as food producers. Women are the main persons engaged in 47.7% of crop activities. Men clear land and do the ploughing. In households without males, women hire labour or rely on older relatives. Both men and women plant, but more men are involved (65%). The person who plant, also ploughs. The remaining crop activities are almost exclusively women's work. Household work takes up half of women's active day. Men help in wood collection and shopping. Women are the main persons responsible and engaged in house-building. Women in these societies have considerable influence on decision-making connected with agricultural activities, even in activities where women's labour contribution is small. The results show that agricultural extension is reaching rural people only to a limited degree. Where it does make contact, both men and women are reached, but men and households with a male head are favoured.
The role of women is dependent on the composition of the household. 42% of the households were headed by women. In these households women took most of the decisions.
Crops grown: everyone who ploughed planted sorghum. A high proportion also grew maize and beans. Other crops were millet, cowpeas and ground-nuts. Women keep pigs and poultry and a number of women are responsible for small livestock; men herd and tend the cattle. The study concludes that there is an obvious need for extension services to be directed towards women. But for this to be practical, some considerations must be given to ensure that any extension for women encompass all the interrelated parts of their lives, and that farming is not dealt with in isolation.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/SUBS/GENDER/WO LO
Brandtzaeg, Brita (1982a): The Role and Status of Women in Post Harvest Food Conservation. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 4 (1): 33-40.
It is stated that methods and technologies of relevance to women's activities in the food chain have received little attention in planning and research aiming at increasing food availability and nutritional levels. The author argues that tools and techniques used for processing food into edible and digestible products are of crucial importance in this respect. There is a need to study food processing techniques that women use and to evaluate their economic and nutritional significance. Empirical data on local food systems and gender division of labour are presented. The nutritional and technological significance of methods women use in their various tasks in food processing and preparation are discussed. The data clearly show the laborious processes involved in making the best possible use of available food resources. A call is made for the provision of training and opportunities for women to redesign their own tools. Efforts should be made to develop appropriate technologies based on the best in traditional food processing, which will increase the productivity of household work. Local food processing techniques on a cooperative basis are seen as one way of releasing women from time-consuming, repetitive and laborious work.
GLOB/PROJ/TECH/MODERN/GENDER
Brandtzaeg, Brita (1982b): Women, Food and Technology: A Village Study from India. Third World Seminar Publications No. 28, University of Oslo, Norway. 44 pp.
An attempt is made to view the problem of nutrition as part of the total food system in the village of investigation. Data was collected by a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods on labour input and organization, production and processing techniques along the food chain. Time allocation by men, women, girls and boys in all their daily chores are presented, showing that women spent more time than men on activities directly related to food, but their total workload was the same. The data also show that boys and girls below age 14 contribute a considerable part of the total household labour. Data on gender division of labour in relation to different agricultural crops and according to season, show a great deal of overlapping between the sexes when it comes to crops and tasks performed. However, the cultivation of pulses and oil-seeds seems to be entirely women's work. The most striking difference between men and women, however, is the type of techniques they use to perform the same tasks. For example, while women use wooden sticks for threshing, men use bullock carts and rollers. The data demonstrate that women are left with the heaviest and most repetitive work, such as carrying loads of food crops, firewood and water, and that the tools and techniques available to women are more primitive than those utilized by men, and therefore result in lower productivity compared to the work of men.
The field-work included an action component which consisted of setting up a local processing unit for producing a weaning food mixture on a cooperative basis. The processing of grains for the mixture was based on traditional techniques, and also familiar to the villagers. The local cooperative processing resulted in a very positive response from the mothers, who in the beginning had been reluctant to feed this mixture to their children. The weight gain of children 0-3 years old who had received the weaning food was significantly higher than children who had not received it. The author's conclusion is to develop strategies for cooperative action concerning local food processing technologies, since this seems to be the only way that labour saving tools can be economically acceptable to women.
AGRIC/ASIA/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/NUTR/LINK/TECH/GENDER
Bryson, Judy C. (1979): Women and Economic Development in Cameroon. Office of Women in Development, Agency for International Development, Washington D.C. 59 pp.
The paper is based on available literature and the author's own field-work in the Cameroon. It contains a chapter on women's role in agriculture and nutrition. It reviews women's involvement in different types of production. It argues that the division of labour in this area is not according to tasks or crops grown, but on the basis of fields. Women had their own fields where foods for the daily meals were grown. The men's food store represented reserve supplies. When women had no fields of their own and were supposed to help their husbands, they tended to spend more time on marketing activities in order to get an independent source of income. Women's role in food processing and cooking is discussed with regard to seasonal changes. Links to nutrition are attempted.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/REV/PROD/HANDL/NUTR/LINK/SEASON/GENDER
Bryson, Judy C. (1981): Women and Agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for Development. J. Dev. Stud 17 (3): 29-46.
The author draws from an comparative study of the division of labour, based on the Murdoch Ethnographical Atlas and her own field-work in Ghana, Burundi, Lesotho and Cameroon. In addition to the division of labour, the article raises the subject of social imperatives sustaining the predominant role of women in food production. It is argued that food production is an integral part of the notion of "motherhood" in African countries. The implications of this and other cultural traits for development are discussed.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/REV/PROD/GENDER
Bukh, Jette (1979): Village Women in Ghana. Uppsala, Scandinavian Inst. for African Affairs. Uppsala, Sweden. 118 pp.
The introduction of cocoa and the increasing importance of wage labour and commodity production initiated a significant change in land tenure in Southern Ghana. This affected women negatively in several ways.
The migration of males to the urban areas compelled women to undertake tasks that they were not accustomed to, which in turn affected the type of land that they could cultivate, and the crops that could be produced. The persistence of patrilineal forms of inheritance and lineage rights affected the women's access to land to cultivate tree crops, while the small size of the plots made them more risk conscious about adapting new crops like hybrid maize.
The traditional food of these people was yams, which were grown on the fertile forest lands. It was men's work to cut the forest and make the high mounds on which yams were grown. When cocoa was introduced it was grown on the fertile forest land. Women lost the men's labour, and they got less land for growing yams.
The situation for women got even worse when the cocoa production went down and men migrated to the urban areas. Because of an excessive workload, women began to grow cassava instead of yams. The author has estimated the nutrient content of yams and cassava, and argues that the change could have a negative nutritional effect, since cassava is less nutritious than yams.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/CA CRO/SUBS/GENDER/WO LO/WHH
Burfisher, Mary E., Horenstein, Nadine R. (1985): Sex Roles in the Nigerian Tiv Farm Household. Women's Roles and Gender Differences in Development. Cases for Planners. Kumarian Press, West Hartford, USA, 62 pp.
This study examines the expected impact of a development project on both sexes. It focuses on the division of labour, income and financial obligations among the Tiv, an ethnic group in Nigeria, and discusses the implications of these divisions for the ability and incentives of each sex to adopt technologies introduced by the agricultural development project. This project was particularly aimed at increasing yields from production and increasing farm incomes through introduction of a technological package.
Based on calculations of women's and men's labour input in different parts of the agricultural cycle, and expected changes due to the project, it was shown that the project could be expected to increase women's farm labour disproportionally to men's. Conflicts were expected to occur with regard to women's labour allocation to different crops and to agricultural vs. non-agricultural work.
An alternative project design with special focus on the needs of women is discussed.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/THEOR/PROJ/PROD/TECH/SEASON/MODERN/INC/GENDER
Burton, Michael L. and Douglas R. White (1984): Sexual Division of Labour in Agriculture. American Anthropologist, 86: 568-583.
A cultural ecological theory of the sexual division of labour in agriculture is developed that has universal relevance. The theory is geared towards explaining the linkages between agricultural intensification and the sexual division of labour. In this context, 5 variables are hypothesized to effect the sexual division of labour: population pressure, seasonal time pressure (short cultivation season), use of the plough, are all thought to increase male participation in agriculture; while the dependence on domesticated animals and the cultivation of crops requiring extensive processing are thought to decrease participation of women in agriculture, due to increased labour inputs in domestic work. The theory was tested out by carrying out least squares regression analysis on the proposed variables according to regions in the world. It was found that seasonal time pressure and dependence on domesticated animals were the strongest predictors of female participation in agriculture, while population density was found to have the weakest effect on sexual division of labour.
AGRIC/GLOB/THEOR/PROD/HANDL/MODERN/GENDER
Carloni, Alice (1983): Integration of Women in Agricultural Projects. Case Studies of ten FAO-assisted Field Projects. FAO, Rome, 103 pp.
This paper is based on a series of case studies of selected FAO field projects, that were carried out in 1982. The purpose was to assess the extent to which FAO agricultural projects in various fields have taken rural women into account; to identify the consequences of overlooking women and to suggest design alternatives which would strengthen a project by incorporating women.
The projects selected are potentially relevant in regard to nutrition; poultry, postharvest processing and storage of food grains, sheep and goat production and irrigation.
An analysis of the selected case studies was performed to compare and contrast the experience of the various projects and draw some practical conclusions about various aspects of the process of integrating women. The paper includes a set of recommendations.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROJ/PROD/HANDL/TECH/INC/GENDER/WO LO
Carr, Marilyn (1978): Appropriate Technology for African Women. African Training and Research Centre for Women, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa.
This report contains examples of labour saving devices, designed to aid women's work, including food production, food handling and cooking.
AGRIC/AFR/PROJ/PROD/HANDL/TECH/INC/WO LO
Carr, Marilyn (1979): Women in Rural Senegal: Some Implications of Proposed Integrated Food and Nutrition Interventions. Office of the Advisor on Women in Development, World Bank, USA, 42 pp.
The Integrated Food and Nutrition Project in Senegal attempts to improve nutrition and health standards in the rural areas by combining expanded training and facilities with measures to increase food availability. This paper examines the sort of problems which may arise during the implementation of such a project and makes some suggestions on how safeguards could be built into the project to increase the chances of success.
In regard to new sources for drinking water, it is discussed how lack of careful planning may reduce time saved by women. For example, if there are no suitable facilities for functions such as bathing and laundry, additional journeys to more traditional water sources have to be made. Furthermore, time saved in water collection may be devoted to doing more work on their husbands' fields; the income from which is less likely to be spent on food.
In regard to food availability: One method of trying to increase food availability is to distribute higher yielding or quicker maturing varieties of seeds. If these are distributed through normal channels in Senegal, they may be used by the men on their own fields and not filter through to the women for use on theirs. The use of new varieties of seeds on men's fields may also result in more work for women without more access to the income.
Problems from past experiences are identified in terms of failures to achieve improved nutrition and health through support to food-related activities. The major problems listed are: inappropriate choice of technology for drawing water, food processing and storage; lack of economic appraisal of income-generating activities (time and resources spent in relation to income earned); lack of appropriate training and wrong timing in training; lack of consideration of linkages and conflicts between women's different activities (relates to the importance of promoting activities that can serve many purposes); and insufficient consideration of division of responsibilities, control of resources and decision-making power between men and women. Suggestions for strengthening the nutritional outcome of a proposed integrated food and nutrition project in Senegal are made. The suggestions are: 1) water development for small-scale food production and household purposes, 2) provision of grinding mills, 3) vegetable gardening, 4) poultry and livestock raising, 5) food storage improvement, 6) income-generating activities promoting nutrition (e.g. production of clay-pot water filters, foot coverings to prevent hook-worm infestation, ground-nut shell briquettes as substitutes for firewood, and ground-nut oil). Each suggestion is discussed in terms of its nutrition-promoting effects and in terms of factors that have to be taken into account in order to ensure a successful outcome. Training and nutrition education are seen as integral parts of the activities to be promoted.
AGRIC/ANIMAL/AFR/PROJ/PROD/HANDL/LINK/TECH/INC/GENDER/WO LO/EDU
Carr, Marilyn (1981): Women and Technology in Rurally Oriented Projects. Notes on Women in Development No. 13, World Bank, Washington DC. 38 pp.
The main hypothesis of the paper is that rural-oriented development projects stand a greater chance of success if more consideration is given to the important role that women have to play in enabling potential benefits to be realized. Technology regarding food production, food processing and household tasks is discussed as well as the impact of technology on income generating activities for women. It is stated that technology can reduce drudgery, but also reduce opportunities for employment, depending on the circumstances. Therefore, the effect that the choice of technology is likely to have on employment for women should be fully considered.
Three areas have been pointed out as the most critical for women's effective participation in technological change:
1) Mechanisms and personnel for ensuring that women receive as well as contribute information about and gain access to improved technologies. This has to do with the experience that development initiatives, introduced to men by men are often regarded as men's domain, and will thus not benefit women. 2) Reducing the burden and increasing the efficiency of women's tasks in the household economy, thus freeing women's time. 3) Ensuring the availability of cash for women.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROJ/PROD/HANDL/TECH/WO LO/GENDER/MODERN/INC
Caughman, Susan (1980): Women at Work in Mali: The Case of the Markala Cooperative. Ministry of Rural Development, Republic of Mali and Ford Foundation.
The paper concerns a study of a cooperative started by and for women in the town of Markala in Mali, in order to increase the means and stability of income. In this exercise the workload and responsibilities of women in Mali are described. It is stated that women in Mali are expected, through a combination of custom, social obligation and harsh economic reality, to make substantial contributions to the family budget and maintenance of the household. Tradition governs with great precision the nature and extent of contributions by men and women. Two essential items are always provided by women - food and clothing. Farm women were expected to provide all food ingredients. Women without access to land, such as town women, could in the past expect their husbands to pay the price of the sauce to accompany the staple food. Today most husbands cannot afford to cover the full cost of this part of the food, and women have to supply it. Most of the women in the study were part of polygamous households, where cooking duties rotate among the adult women, giving the women time for income-generating activities. To meet basic food responsibilities, Markala women must come up with important sums of cash each month.
Cooking is estimated to take 1-2 hrs per meal. Millet dehusking and grinding is the most time-consuming process, estimated to 2.5 hrs, per day, if done by hand. Nowadays most of the women did the dehusking themselves and the grinding at the mill, thus saving time.
Women were traditionally responsible for bringing firewood. However, because of the deforestation, firewood had now to be bought. In this process the responsibility for firewood shifted from the women to the men. With wood available for purchase, water nearby, and grain processed in part at mills, Markala women are comparatively free from much domestic drudgery, and could spend the time on income earning activities such as those performed at the cooperative.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/GENDER/WO LO
Chaney, Elsa M. (1985): Women and Food Production: Variations on a Perennial Theme. In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming Economic Development. R.S. Gallin and A. Spring (Eds.). Association for Women in Development Conference, Washington D.C. pp. 61-64.
Two women's components attached to larger rural development projects in Jamaica and the Dominican Republic are reviewed in terms of their possible impact on women. The two components were centred on subsistence food production through nutrition/gardening interventions. Family-sized vegetable plots, to be cultivated on a rotation basis, and nutritional education were introduced. Both projects aimed at improving women's productivity in subsistence-generating, rather than income-generating activities. Two important questions were assessed: the extent to which subsistence-generating projects may effect women's status negatively, since they do not produce cash income, and the degree to which women's organization contributes to the success of women's projects. It is agreed that intensive gardening is a far more economic use of women's time and labour, than many income-generating activities. Money can be saved by having a garden. It is also argued that nutrition education is more easily taught when linked to food production efforts. The author suggests that rather than remedy women's devalued position by removing them from subsistence food production to income-generating activities, the solution might be to communicate women's important contribution to the rural household to women themselves, their men and children, and the community.
AGRIC/GLOB/THEOR/PROJ/PROD/SUBS/INC
Chavangi, N.A and A. Hanssen (1983): Women in Livestock Production, with Particular Reference to Dairying. Prepared for Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production, FAO, Rome, 14 pp.
In small-holder systems throughout the world, cattle are kept for the provision of draught power, manure, milk and beef. Women have mainly been active in working with milk and milk products, even though they are also involved in ploughing, in collection and spreading of manure and general husbandry and herding.
Women face a number of difficulties related to their formal lack of rights of ownership of cattle or land. Women are often not able to: join dairy cooperatives themselves; receive the returns on sales of processing plants; seek technical assistance or training themselves; or apply for credit.
Furthermore, in some societies it is difficult for women to discuss breeding matters with male technical staff. With increased commercialization of dairy processing, women lose the income it generates. Women managers of herds may have an increased workload due to modern methods, including improved animal nutrition, disease control, management and breed improvement.
It is pointed out that nutritional considerations have to be taken into account in developing efforts in the dairy sector. For example, steps should be taken to make payments for milk to those responsible for managing the herds. It may be found that women want smaller payments at shorter intervals, in order to have cash for family food. On the other hand, improving the marketing opportunities for milk may result in low milk consumption among children in poor families. If children suffer nutritionally when milk sales are increased, some new policies will be required.
ANIMAL/GLOB/PROJ/PROD/HANDL/NUTR/INC
Chenoweth, Florence (1984): Women in the Food System in Africa. Consultant report, Zambia. FAO, Rome. 25 pp.
This report from Zambia is one of the studies of women in Food Systems in Africa, initiated by FAO. It is stated that women's intensive involvement in agriculture, makes them the pillar on which the food system of Zambia is built. In addition to agricultural work, housework and child-care, women are heavily involved in trading of food crops and fish. Women are also involved in fishing from streams and preparation of fish by smoking and drying. The overall burden on women in some parts of Zambia has increased. Due to soil depletion, women have to cultivate larger areas of land. Similarly, in areas of deforestation women must spend many hours in search of firewood. The paper includes evaluation of the credit institutions, extension services and cooperatives in the light of women's needs.
AGRIC/AFR/OVERV/PROD/TECH/GENDER
Chowdhury, A.K.M. Alauddin, Sandra L. Huffman and Lincoln C. Chen (1981): Agriculture and Nutrition in Matlab Thana, Bangladesh. In: Seasonal Dimensions to Rural Poverty. Chambers, Longhearst and Pacey (Eds.) Frances Pinter Ltd., London, pp 52-61.
The authors present data from a longitudinal study in Comilla District in Bangladesh, carried out by the Cholera Research Laboratory during March 1976 to February 1977. Data were collected on seasonal variations in body weight of mothers and children, breast-feeding time, household food stocks, women's agricultural activities, rice prices, wage rates, and diarrhoeal diseases. The findings showed that women's and children's body weight varied according to season, being at its lowest when household food stocks reached bottom level and at the peak when household food agricultural activity was just passed. The paper points out that seasonal peak demands on labour coincide with periods of food shortage, but that the observed weight changes also may be due to an increase in illnesses and lack of time for proper feeding of infants during the peak season.
AGRIC/ASIA/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/DISTR/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/IRR/SEASON/WO HEAL
Clark, Gracia (1985): Fighting the African Food Crisis: Women Food Farmers and Food Workers. United Nations Development Fund for Women, 41 pp.
The paper discusses the importance of small-farm women in Africa with ample references to other studies. Particular emphasis is placed on the tasks of food production and processing, that repeatedly constrain labour, such as weeding, transplanting, harvesting and transportation of produce. Grain processing is often a very time-consuming task, especially for the traditional crops, sorghum and millet. It is suggested that development aid facilitate technology to ease these tasks. It is also suggested that particular attention be given those crops which are usually cultivated by women, such as cassava, yams, pulses. Since women are often involved in animal husbandry, particularly of small animals, dairy and fish processing, these activities should also be given special attention.
AGRIC/ANIMAL/AFR/REV/PROD/HANDL/MODERN/GENDER/WO LO
Cloud, Kathleen (1985): Women Farmers and Aid Agricultural Projects: How Efficient are we? In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming Economic Development. R.S. Gallin and A. Spring (eds.). Association for Women in Development Conference, Washington D.C. pp 163-170.
Eight agricultural projects instituted by the USAID in North Africa are examined in terms of lessons to be learned concerning women's participation in development. All projects addressed the total farming system and also targeted resources of female cropping enterprises. The author introduces an analytical framework which distinguishes between men's and women's crop production and relates this to overall project efficiency and to equity between the sexes. It is concluded that the projects where women's access to productive resources was high, were also the projects with the highest efficiency. It is therefore stressed that both equity and efficiency are best served by projects that take explicit account of men's and women's roles in agricultural systems.
AGRIC/AFR/PROJ/PROD/GENDER
Date-Bah, Eugenia and Stevens, Yvette (1981): Rural Women in Africa and Technological Change: Some Issues. Publications for the International Institute for Labour Studies, ILO, Geneva, 14 pp.
The authors warn against treating women as isolated individuals in development efforts; that too much of the development literature on women has failed to consider the interrelations of women's and men's activities. It is suggested that introducing appropriate technology for women should not only be viewed in terms of methods which could lead to an increase in income and a reduction in drudgery, but also as an important means of social change in the life of the rural family. It could, for example, aim at promoting cooperation between males and females. Thus, the men have to be included in the development efforts for women.
The authors point out that already existing traditional women's groups may be good avenues for introducing technological change. It is also pointed out that developing countries possess vast natural resources in the form of solar, wind, hydro and biomass energy. The most appropriate technology for women should not always be based on human or animal power.
AFR/PROJ/REV/TECH/GENDER/WO LO
Dey, Jennie (1984a): Women in Rice-farming Systems. Women in Agriculture 2. FAO, Rome. 106 pp.
The paper focuses on women's roles in rice production, postharvest work and marketing and looks into the implications for expanding production and raising productivity and incomes under different cultivation conditions. It is based on case studies of traditional rice-farming systems and the impact of development projects from the Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Gambia, Upper Volta, Senegal and Zanzibar. Recommendations for government policy, research, project design, delivery, monitoring and evaluation are given.
AGRIC/AFR/REV/FIELD/PROD/GENDER/WO LO/TECH/MODERN
Dey, Jennie (1984b): Women in Food Production and Food Scarcity in Africa. Women in Agriculture 3, FAO, Rome. 101 pp.
The paper reviews women's responsibilities for cash crop and subsistence food production, gathering foods, animal production, and food handling within the context of food security. The paper takes into account FAO's concept of food security which has three elements - increased production, stability of supplies, and accessibility of food. Women's roles and efforts are seen as vital to their realization. Measures to increase women farmers' output and efficiency in food production in order to improve food security are proposed.
AGRIC/AFR/OVERV/PROD/HANDL/GENDER/WO LO
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (1985): Women in Fisheries. Report on Socio-Economic Surveys in Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines. ESCAP, Bangkok, Thailand, 40 pp.
The intention of the paper is to bridge the information gap concerning women's role in small scale fisheries and the socio-economic aspects. It includes reviews of pilot projects for women in Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines.
The division of labour and the traditional role of women in fishing communities differ widely in the programme areas, owing to different cultural patterns. In Indonesia and the Philippines women are traditionally involved in fish postharvest activities. In the Philippines, more than 50% of the handling, marketing and distribution of the fish is carried out by women. Women are not allowed on board fishing vessels and are therefore generally excluded from catching fish.
In the South Pacific, such social taboos do not exist, and traditions do not prevent women from engaging in fishing activities. In Fiji, subsistence fishing is carried out mainly by women who are also heavily involved in catching shellfish and crustaceans for the market. Women in Papua New Guinea are involved in fishing activities at the subsistence level, particularly with respect to shellfish. They are also heavily involved in the handling, processing and marketing of the catches.
The pilot projects were planned so as to test the potential of income-earning activities for women in these relatively disadvantaged communities. The information points to some encouraging results.
FISH/ASIA/FIELD/PROJ/PROD/MARK/INC
Economic Commission for Africa, African Training and Research Centre for Women (1978): The Role of Women in the Utilization of Science and Technology for Development. Prepared for the African Regional Meeting on United Nations Conference on Science and Technology. UN ECA, Addis Ababa.
The use of technology is discussed in relation to food production and food handling. Examples are given from different pans of Africa. These illustrate how new technology for food production and food handling has failed, because it was designed and introduced by men and not enough attention was paid to women's needs. Examples of some successful projects are also given. However, when technology has been successfully introduced, men have often taken over the operation. The relationship between technology and women's workload and the nutritional status of women and children is discussed.
AGRIC/AFR/REV/PROD/HANDL/TECH/WO LO
Economic Commission for Africa, African Training and Research Centre for Women (1984a): The Role of Women in the Solution of the Food Crisis in Africa. Prepared for the Third Regional Conference on the Integration of Women in Development, Arusha, Tanzania, UN ECA, Addis Ababa. 29 pp.
Factors contributing to the poor performance of African food production are discussed in relation to women's roles. Important factors are: the rural/urban drift which has changed the structure of the rural population, particularly because of the unprecedented number of young people and men moving into the towns; the low level of production technology; inadequate and irregular supply of inputs; unencouragingly low prices of food products; and import policies, which bring prices down, because African currencies are over-valued. Strategies for greater and more rational participation of women are laid out. These focus on technological improvements, training and research, water for domestic use and irrigation, and the problem of firewood.
AGRIC/AFR/REV/PROD/TECH/GENDER/WO LO
Economic Commission for Africa, African Training and Research Centre for Women (1984b): Marketing in Ghana, UN ECA, Addis Ababa, 62 pp.
The report is based on field studies from 11 markets in Ghana and concerns women's involvement in marketing of foods, including farm produce and fish. It gives the socio-economic background of market women, why they chose this occupation and the degree to which their special needs, such as day care centres for children, cooking facilities etc. are fulfilled.
The traders have to stay about 10 hours a day in the market-place. All the market-places had problems with poor sanitation and inadequate ancillary and utility services. The traders, who were mostly mothers, had to bring their children up in this environment. On the average, the traders had to care for four children while doing business. Only three of the markets had day care services. 81% of the mothers who had no day care centre, insisted that they needed this service. Many of the traders had credit problems.
AFR/FIELD/MARK/CHI CA/WO LO
Economic Commission for Africa, African Training and Research Centre for Women (1985): The Arusha Strategies for the Advancement of Women in Africa. UN ECA, Addis Ababa, 51 pp.
The Arusha strategies are the African regional input to "Global Forward-looking Strategies on the Advancement of Women", presented to the Nairobi conference. It discusses women's dual role; their role in production and their nurturing role. Among the strategies are those dealing with food production and self-sufficiency.
AFR/OVERV/PROD
FAO (1981a): Social Impact Analysis. A Model and Strategy for Implementation in Development Assistance. Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division, Home Economics and Social Programmes Service. Rome, Italy, 22 pp.
In order to predict and minimize negative consequences of development projects it is suggested that social impact analysis is incorporated from the initial identification and preparatory stages of the projects. The social impact analysis is designed to discover sex, social and inter-generational inequalities, and trade-offs in regard to access to resources, and to monitor these in the course of the project. Unexpected positive consequences which may need strengthening and unexpected negative impacts which must be counteracted can be discovered.
A large body of data within the following categories is suggested, split into age, sex and broad socio-economic groups: demographic data, agricultural data, data on access to resources, income data, nutritional data, organizational data.
It is suggested that Indicators are selected from this broadly based range of baseline data to suit the need at different stages of the project.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROD/PROJ/NUTR/INC/GENDER
FAO (1981b): Women In Development. Checklist for Project Development Missions. Office Memorandum. Population Programmes, ESHH, FAO.
This is a checklist to be used when identifying, designing and developing the following types of projects: projects to increase food production; fertilizer projects; projects for development of water resources; projects to develop animal industries; fishery projects; forestry projects; agricultural cooperatives, and price policy programmes.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROD/PROJ/FISH/TECH/MODERN
FAO (1983a): Women in Food Production. Report of the Expert Consultation held in Rome, 7-14 December. FAO, Rome, 149 pp.
This is a report from a meeting attended by experts from 31 countries. Based on an assessment of existing data and assumptions about women's roles in development, the group recommended, inter alia, changes needed in policies, programmes and implementation. Point No. 3 in the recommendations pertains to the link between food production and nutrition: "Programmes and projects should be developed which further food security at the household level. These should be based on analysis of the linkages between factors such as land-use, crop choice, and pricing policies on the one hand, and income and nutritional levels on the other."
GLOB/OVERV/PROJ
FAO (1983b): The Need for Improved Agricultural Extension Services for Women Engaged in Agriculture. Prepared by the Education and Extension Service for Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production, FAO, Rome 7-14 December, 13 pp.
This report includes a review of FAO's involvement in agricultural extension and training in developing countries, and the limited success achieved in reaching small-scale farmers, including women. In the discussion of how FAO can help to bring about necessary changes to improve extension services for men and women the following points were highlighted:
AGRIC/GLOB/PROD/PROJ/REV/TECH/GENDER
FAO (1983c): The Role of Women in Food Production with particular Reference to small Animals at Village Level. Prepared for the Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production. FAO, Rome, 17 pp.
In most rural households it is ordinarily women's responsibility to feed, care for, sell and use the products of the small animals they own. This includes poultry, rabbits, goats, sheep and pigs. It is pointed out that these animals and the produce from them, such as eggs and milk, could increase the supply of protein, certain vitamins and minerals available to the family.
However, it can not be assumed automatically that rural families will eat what they produce. The paper discusses different reasons why women keep small animals, such as to ensure a readily available source of cash, to use them for sacrificial purposes or in funeral ceremonies, to obtain manure, to show hospitality to guests, and for family consumption.
A review of case studies from the Ivory Coast, Benin, Togo and the Congo is included.
Among the recommendations based on experience from these projects are:
ANIMAL/AFR/PROJ/REV/FIELD/PROD/NUTR
FAO (1984a): Promotion of Women's Activities in Marketing and Credit. An analysis, Case Studies and suggested Actions. (Preliminary working document.) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
A desk study commissioned by FAO's Marketing and Credit Service. The objective was to provide suggestions for forms of support to women engaged in food and agricultural marketing. The study contains an identification of the types of problems women face in marketing and in obtaining credit for this activity, and case material from Africa, Asia and the Caribbean is presented. General guidelines for financing, training and technical assistance are suggested, in addition to guidelines related to small producers' marketing of special products, such as dairy products, small livestock, fish and vegetables. Concrete proposals are finally made concerning research, training, credit and support services.
GLOB/PROJ/OVERV/MARK/INC
FAO (1984): Some Considerations for Future Action regarding Women in Food Production and Food Security. Prepared for Government Consultation on the Role of Women in Food Production and Food Security, Harare, Zimbabwe, 12 pp.
A set of suggestions proposed to overcome some of the constraints on women's role in food production, processing and marketing. These are related to the following fields: general policy; resources and credit; agricultural practices and technologies; inputs, marketing, extension and training; village-level organizations, and research.
AFR/AGROC/PROD
FAO (1984): The Role of Women in Agricultural Production. Women in Agriculture 1. Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division. FAO, Rome. 38 pp.
This paper deals with the degree of participation of women in agriculture in different parts of the world. It discusses the linkage between women in food production and nutrition in regard to seasonal changes in labour demand. Reference is made to data from Gambia which indicate that pregnant women may actually lose weight during the peak season, while data from Thailand show a doubling or a trebling of the incidence of miscarriages, as well as premature reduction or termination of breast feeding during rice planting and harvesting.
It is stated that improvements in childhood nutrition are more strongly associated with increases in mothers' incomes than they are with increases in aggregate income. The issue of rural women is discussed in the perspective of WCARRD. Suggestions for action are given.
AGRIC/OVERV/GLOB/PROD/NUTR/HANDL/TECH
FAO (1985): Women in Developing Agriculture. Women in Agriculture, 4. Prepared by Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division, FAO, Rome. 104 pp.
The concern of this paper is mainly with women who work on the land as smallholders, tenants or landless workers, with special focus on those who depend primarily on small-scale farming. Of special interest is the chapter dealing with the effects on women of the changes that are taking place in farming technologies, crops, livestock, forestry and fishery production systems; marketing institutions; and agrarian structures. Different types of spin-off effects that intensification of agriculture might have on food security at the household level are discussed. These are related to changes in women's workload, income-earning opportunities, local availability of food and postharvest preparations.
AGRIC/FISH/ANIMAL/REV/GLOB/PROD/HANDL/GENDER/WO LO/TECH/MODERN
Ferguson, Anne E., and Nancy Horn (1985): Situating Agricultural Research: Class and Gender Issues in Project Advisement. In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming economic Development. R.S. Gallin and A. Spring (Eds.) Association for Women in Development Conference. Washington D.C. pp. 86-90.
The paper draws on research material from Botswana and Cameroon, being prepared for the Bean/Cowpea Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP), Michigan State University. The role of women in the two countries is described in terms of 1) gender differences in the division of labour in agriculture at the local level, 2) the political economy of agricultural enterprises (including intra-household relations and control of resources between genders), 3) women's income-generating activities. Guidelines are offered in terms of how the women's perspective can be built into the promotion of bean and cowpea varieties that will strengthen health and nutrition. These guidelines take into account the household's needs for subsistence food and the need for seed varieties that may be time and labour-saving to produce and process.
AGRIC/AFR/GLOB/PROJ/LINK/INC/GENDER/WO LO
Galvin, Kathleen (1985): Food Procurement, Diet, Activities and Nutrition of Ngisonyoka Turkana Pastoralists in an Ecological and Social Context. Ph.D. Thesis in Anthropology Graduate School of the State University of New York, Binghamton, USA. 379 pp.
This thesis gives information on seasonal patterns of food procurement, diet intake, subsistence activities and nutritional status in different age and gender groups. Seasonal estimates of daily energy expenditure and time budgeting were done for these groups as well. It was shown that both adult men and women bore the brunt of seasonal nutritional stress. However, women and adolescent girls showed the greatest seasonal fluctuations in body size and compositions, while men were somewhat less affected by season, but indices of nutritional status were always lower than those of women and adolescent girls.
ANIMAL/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/SUBS/SEASON/GENDER/GLOB/WO HEAL
Garibaldi Accati, Elena (1983): Women's Role in Horticultural Production in Developing Countries. Prepared for the Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production, FAO, Rome. 19 pp.
Horticultural crops, mostly vegetables and fruits, are described as very valuable, both nutritionally for the population cultivating them and as a source of foreign currency if exported. There is a tendency all over the world for women to be employed in horticulture, where they perform the hardest tasks. Women are less productive than men; this is largely a result of discrimination in the utilization of modern technology and has nothing to do with biological differences between the sexes.
The organization of work may differ. In parts of West Africa women grow vegetables in communal gardens. Here, vegetable gardening is not a principle activity for the farming household, so women turn to the task after they have finished their rice harvesting and housework. As a result, sowing and planting are often delayed, creating shortages of vegetables for many months. As a contrast to the communal gardening, the tradition in Kenya as in all East Africa is that women work on their own family plots; individualism is much more developed here than in Senegal.
For Asian women, there is an inadequate data base to judge what women in horticulture really do and need. In Bangladesh, the man's economic role is tied to paddy production, the women's tasks are tending vegetables and fruits at their homesteads, harvesting spices, storing and sprouting the seeds of pulses and oil crops. A similar division of labour exists in Sri Lanka where women, in addition to growing vegetables and fruits, are active in growing plants for perfumery materials, such as citronella and lemon grass oils.
When women work as wage-earners in horticulture, they are concentrated in the least permanent and worst paid activities; in fact it is stated that such wage labour may accentuate the subordination of women.
It is pointed out that horticulture can be profitable and suitable for women if they are properly trained and provided with support services. Women may be particularly well suited for jobs in seed production and crop development. Recommendations for both national and international levels are given. These are concentrated on manufacture of equipment to ease women's workload; education and agricultural extension to women; policies which take into consideration women's role in horticulture; the role of women's organizations as intermediaries between government programmes and the rural poor; "development with equity" in project implementation.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROD/N PLO/SUBS/TECH/MODERN/GENDER/WO LO
Gladwin, Christina H. (1985): Changes in Women's Roles on the Farm: A Response to the Intensification of Capitalization of Agriculture. In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming Economic Development. R.S. Galling and A. Spring (Eds.) Association for Women in Development Conference, Washington DC. pp. 139-142.
A hypothesis is proposed to explain the present increase in women's participation in extensive farming systems: Women's agricultural contributions decline with the capitalization of agriculture and increase with its marginalization. This hypothesis is thought to represent an alternative to the hypothesis, first substantiated by Esther Boserup, that female contribution to agriculture declines with agricultural intensification. The author believes that agricultural capitalization is the phenomenon that more correctly explains the transition of women's role in agriculture, rather than agricultural intensification. A re-examination of crosscultural studies from the Third World is done, and data presented from personal interviews in North Florida which support this hypothesis.
AGRIC/GLOB/THEOR/PROD/MODERN/GENDER
Government of Swaziland, Ministry of Education and UNICEF (1978/79): The Survey of Roles, Tasks, Needs and Skills of Rural Women in Swaziland. The Government of Swaziland, 36 pp.
This report is based on a survey in 6 different areas in Swaziland. The agricultural labour force in Swaziland has become predominantly female, owing to the fact that young men and school drop-outs have migrated. Most of the women showed a negative attitude towards this migration, the remittances from the husbands were rarely enough to maintain the household. Increased work and the process of decision-making often make it difficult for them as producers. Some women had to travel long distances to get papers for credit loans signed by their men.
AGRIC/AFR/REV/PROD/WO LO/WHH
Guyer, Jane (1984): Naturalism in Models of African Production. Man 19 (3): 371-388.
Different models of agricultural production attempting to explain sexual division of labour in Africa are reviewed. These models are based on naturalist premises about domestic organization and division of labour by sex. Three problem issues are discussed in detail: 1) the relationship between root and cereal production and sex-related social organization of labour; 2) the effect of women's child-care constraints on their agricultural work patterns; 3) the hypothesis that agricultural production belongs to the domestic sphere and therefore has little connection with the politico-jural domain. The author draws on published research from Africa and her own field data from Nigeria and Cameroon in her discussion.
The notion that the root/cereal distinction explains unequal participation by men and women is challenged. The author rather finds support for a distinction between indigenous staples and New World crops for the difference between the sexes. The indigenous staples being characterized by complex and ritualized labour organization, whereas crops more recently introduced tend to be individuated, sex-specific and with no symbolic force. Review of available research suggests that it is not the crops themselves which determine domestic labour allocation, but historical processes. The author's own data seem to undermine the assumption that women's child constraints determine their work contribution and production techniques in agriculture. The major constraint is rather seen to be the differential access to supplementary labour by men and women. The relative independence of domestic production from political processes is also disproven. The domestic sphere is not seen as a stagnant sector, but as a dynamic one, changing characteristics according to processes taking place in the politico-jural domain. Possible methods for a social history and analysis of African production are indicated.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/THEOR/REV/PROD/CHI CA/SEASON/GENDER
Hamilton, Sahni, Barry Popkin and Deborah Spicer (1984): Women and Nutrition in Third World Countries. Praeger Press, USA, 143 pp.
This is a review of a number of aspects related to women's nutritional status such as its functional consequences, its determinants and programme and policy implications. Women's allocation of time to productive and reproductive work is discussed in relation to nutrition, drawing on evidence from a number of studies in different countries. The type of work women do is discussed in regard to the impact it has on their calorie needs, their income-generating potential and the time available for food preparation. Seasonal variations in regard to women's work and nutritional requirements are discussed.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROD/HANDL/DISTR/NUTR/LINK/SEASON/WO HEAL
Hamman, Mona and Nadia Youssef (1985): The Continuum in Women's Productive and Reproductive Roles: Implications for Food Aid and Children's Well-Being. Paper presented at the UNICEF/WFP Workshop: "Food Aid and the Well-being of Children in the Developing World", 26 pp.
The authors of this paper argue that women's roles/activities are seen as dichotomized in development programming, whereas in practice they fall in a continuum of labour/time allocations, to both productive and maternal-related tasks. The paper calls for greater integration of women's productive and reproductive roles. Food aid, combined with other forms of development assistance, must be directed to improve and expand female productive capacity (health, nutrition and economic productivity) with the objective of maximizing women's potential contributions to and benefits from the attainment of national development goals as well as creating more optimal conditions for ensuring the well-being of children.
To this end food aid can be seen as a form of "pre-investment" in women's productive capacity and should be accelerated in the following situations:
Instead of being a disincentive to local food production, the authors state that food aid can play a catalytic role in agricultural growth.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/OVERV/PROD/NUTR
Hammer, M. (1985): Women in the Food System in Africa. Mission Report from Ethiopia. FAO, Rome. 96 pp.
This is one of several studies about women in the food system in Africa initiated by FAO. The food farming system in Ethiopia encompasses the following components: the seed farming complex, the enset farming complex, shifting cultivation and the pastoral complex. Plough cultivation started in Ethiopia early in the 16th century, and men have traditionally been responsible for ploughing. This is, according to the author, the reason why women at first glance do not appear to work in the field as in other African countries where horticulture is more predominant. However, this study shows that women are heavily involved in weeding, harvesting and carrying seeds and bundles to and from the fields. Some women are even involved in land preparation and threshing. Wage labour on private holdings is now forbidden, and thus agricultural production would now be impossible without the contribution of women. However, women's role in farming is not well recognised in society. During interviews farmers would call their wives "housewives", whereas the women would call themselves farmers. None of the women had ever been addressed by extension services, only by home economists. It is stated that over 40% of the children show some degree of malnutrition, while 10% are affected with advanced forms.
AGRIC/ANIMAL/FIELD/PROJ/PROD/NUTR/WO LO/GENDER/PLO/AFR
Haswell, Margaret (1981a): Energy for Subsistence. The Macmillan Press Ltd., London, 100 pp.
This book is based on fieldwork in Gambia between 1947 and 1979. It revolves around energy expenditure for agricultural work and energy consumption of members of agricultural households. There is a chapter on seasonality in agricultural production and the role of women. Women farmers spent about 1.5 times the energy spent by men in agriculture, due to more hours worked. The energy spent by women in agriculture was very high in June to September, when the energy intake was at its lowest. This caused much hardship on the part of the women, who reportedly collapsed from overwork and lack of food as they returned from the fields during the periods of most severe hunger. The author emphasizes the urgency of reducing the energy expenditure load carried by women. It is suggested that this can be realized through increased use of technology.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/N PLO/SUBS/WO LO
Haswell, Margaret (1981b): Food Consumption in Relation to Labour Output. In: Seasonal Dimensions to Rural Poverty. Chambers, Longhurst and Pacey (Eds.) Francis Pinter Ltd., London, pp 38-41.
Energy expenditure according to season was estimated for women's work in swamp rice agriculture in a village in Gambia. Highest energy expenditure was found during the preharvest "hungry season", leaving many women in a state of energy deficit. Women's average energy expenditure in producing rice was compared with the energy output of rice, and an energy output/input ratio was established. Family food stocks were related to consumption at postharvest and preharvest times. Whatever criterion used, it was found that the majority of people did not produce sufficient grain to be self-sufficient. Poor households had a low level of production often because of shortages of labour caused by male migration.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/IRR/SEASON/WO LO
Henn, Jeanne Koopman (1983): Feeding the Cities and Feeding the Peasants: What Role for Africa's Women Farmers. World Development, 11 (12): 1043-1055.
This paper argues that the failure to recognize women's crucial roles in food production tends to produce interventions in the food sector which can erode traditional farmers' ability to respond to the increasing urban demand for food and even threaten their efforts to adequately feed their families. In order to analyze the constraints on women's farming two basic types of traditional African farming systems are described: the extensive women's food farming practiced by the Beti peoples in Southern Cameroon, and the intensive men's and women's food farming of the Haya people of northwestern Tanzania.
Studies of these people have shown that despite social and agronomic problems, traditional female food farming can expand output if some of their constraints are lifted. In the case of the Beti, women increased their food production when they had good access to large urban markets. In the case of the Haya, unmarried women showed entrepreneurial, planning and marketing abilities in the creation of successful coffee and banana farms.
It is concluded that Africa's current food problem reflects a widespread failure to integrate traditional food farmers into the modern economy in ways that increase both their productivity and their welfare.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/MARK/MODERN/TECH/GENDER
International Fund for Agricultural Development (1985): Rural Women in Agricultural Investment Projects 1977-1984. Report prepared for the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women, Nairobi, Kenya, 37 pp.
The report reviews the role of women in food production. This is linked to nutrition, with reference to a number of studies showing that the participation of women in income-earning activities - food production and others - have had important implications for child nutrition. The report continues to review women's integration in IFAD activities, which have become quite large. Out of a total of 160 projects approved since the Fund's establishment in 1977, 58 projects identify women as explicit beneficiaries and 52 include special features designed for them. The share of projects identifying women as explicit beneficiaries has increased from 10% of those approved in 1978 to 54% in 1984. It stresses the importance of including women's considerations early in the project process and the need for monitoring and evaluating systems with regard to women's integration. IFAD has addressed women's domestic roles in five ways: drinking water supply, day-care, labour-saving, technology, nutrition components and home economics components have varied greatly. They have not always been promoted as a response to the type of nutritional problems existing in the community.
It is recommended that women's role in the food system needs special attention when the project has an explicit nutritional objective and when men and women have separate purses; men and women have distinct roles as food providers; women grow most of the family food and the project will effect their access to land or time available for this purpose; overwork during the peak season affects women's health and their ability to care for their children properly; poor health is responsible for low absorbtion of nutrients and this can be traced to lack of hygiene in the handling of food by women.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/REV/PROD/NUTR/INC/WO LO
Ifeanyichikwu Okafor, Theresa (1981): The Role of Women in Village Development: Income Earning and Participation in Massaka, SW Cameroon. Pan African Institute for Dev., West Africa, Cameroon.
This is a case study about women's activities. The productive activities (in regard to food) are the following:
Division of labour and responsibilities between men and women:
Food crops are solely marketed by women, who personally carry them to the market. The distance to market, the physical ability of the woman and the amount of food feasible for the market, are all determinant factors of the quantity carried to the market. Money derived either from sale of products or labour is considered as women's income. This money is usually used for household goods and foods which are not produced in the village. Women decide what kind of food to prepare, general cleanliness of the house, what food crops to grow, food storing and marketing. The man decides on what price to sell the cash crop and what house to build. Due to shortage of time, women usually prepare meals twice a day, in the morning and in the evening. When the woman has to go the farm very early in the morning the morning meal is prepared the night before.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/SUBS/CA CRO/GENDER
Jackson, Cecile (1985): The Kano River Irrigation Project. Women's Roles and Gender Differences in Development. Cases for Planners. Kumarian Press, West Hartford, USA, 66 pp.
The impact of an irrigation-settlement project on the lives and working conditions of three groups of women is discussed. The three groups are: Muslim settlement women, Muslim farmstead women, and Pagan women. Among the Muslim settlement women seclusion was practiced. These women were not responsible for food production or collection of water and firewood. Many were, however, economically actively earning an income from harvesting, food processing and the sale of snacks through their children. The profitability of these enterprises had increased as a result of the project, due to higher yields, and an influx of construction workers and migrant labourers. Thus, the project brought expanded economic opportunities to secluded women. These women kept their income separate from the men, divorced frequently and had great independence in their work relations. Many of them owned land through inheritance or purchase.
The Muslim farmstead women, three quarters of whom were not secluded, had increased their incomes through wage labour on the irrigated wheat fields in the project area. However, these women had to commute to the project fields, and this placed a heavy burden on them, since they still had domestic work to do.
The Pagan women who were responsible for food production, suffered negative effects from the project. They were allocated the least desirable lands for production of their own crops, while involved in much extra work on their husbands' farms. Beer brewing, which used to be a source of income for these women, was made more difficult due to the scarcity of fire wood.
The paper suggests an alternative project design to increase the positive effects.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROJ/PROD/MARK/HANDL/INC/GENDER/WO LO/ISLAM
Jakobsen, Oddvar (1978): Economic and Geographical Factors influencing Child Malnutrition; A study from the Southern Highlands, Tanzania. BRALUP Research Paper, No. 52. BRALUP Dar es-Salaam and Dept. of Geography, University of Trondheim, Norway. 105 pp.
Identifies two main causes for underweight which affected 50% of the children: the traditional habits and taboos that bar women, specially pregnant women, from protein rich food and give men first right to the food pot, and even more importantly, the socio-economic structure that makes peasants sell their crops in exchange for non-foods or foods with low nutritional status or turns subsistence farmers into day labourers, thus changing the power structure in the family in favour of men at the expense of women and children.
Crucial "decisions" about the family economy that effect malnutrition are singled out: (a) decision of men to work the land or leave it in favour of migration. This forces the women to do all the agricultural work while at the same time not benefiting from the husband's migratory work. The only sources of cash for women are beer brewing or work as day labourers. Failing this, they sell food crops; (b) men's decision to allocate the amount of land and labour to industrial and food crops with no respect for family food needs; (c) the decision to sell or store food crops; (d) the expenditure pattern - men's preference for items which bring future income or prestige, e.g. cattle, wives, houses, radios etc. The dietary needs of children are expected to be met by the mother. Monetization was less conductive to better nutrition since areas with regular cash income were more likely to neglect food production.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/RICE/NUTR/LINK/WO LO/GENDER
Katona-Apte, Judith (1983): A Socio-cultural Perspective on the Significance of Sex Roles in Agriculture. In: Nutritional Impact of Agricultural Projects. Papers and Proceedings of a Workshop held by the United Nations ACC/Sub-Committee on Nutrition, pp. 28-43.
The topic of this paper is the possible negative nutritional impact of agricultural development projects, using women's role-related activities in agricultural production as the angle of approach.
The socio-cultural factors which link agricultural development to nutritional status have been classified into three categories: (1) increase in cash income results in nutritionally undesirable expenditure patterns; (2) changes in the perception of food needs within the household result in less food availability for women and children; (3) women's available time for child care and other household-related tasks is decreased. These factors are discussed in relation to three types of societies, classified according to the role women play in agriculture: (1) women do not participate in agricultural production; (2) women work actively in the fields along with their husbands; (3) women work separate fields and crops.
It is shown that the three selected factors have different implications in these three types of societies. Recommendations for planners are given on the basis of these implications.
AGRIC/GLOB/THEOR/PROD/NUTR/LINK/GENDER/WO LO
Kebede, Hanna, African Training and Research Centre for Women (1978): Improving Village Water Supplies in Ethiopia. A Case Study of the Socio-Economic Implications. UN Economic Commission of Africa, Addis Ababa, 56 pp.
This is a preproject study, discussing the advantages of improved water supplies in one village in the lowlands and one in the highlands of Ethiopia. The anticipated effects on women's work and nutritional status of the children are discussed. Villagers were asked what they would do with the time saved through the project. In the lowlands, where the project expectations were highest, most of the men thought that the extra time would be spent on housework, whereas the majority of women would like to spend it in cottage production as well as on housework.
AFR/FIELD/PROJ/NUTR/TECH/WO LO
Kershaw, Greet (1976): The Changing Roles of Men and Women in the Kikuyu Family by Socio-economic Strata. In: Rural Women: Development or Underdevelopment. Ed. Wipper, Audrey. The African Studies Centre, Michigan State University, pp 173-194.
The changing roles of women are discussed from traditional (precolonial) to modern (colonial and postcolonial) days. The discussion is based on data from the author's own fieldwork in several periods, in addition to old records and studies. The period has been characterized by increased stratification. The author argues that the roles have changed in different directions, depending on which stratum the women belong to. The changing roles of women in 3 different strata are discussed. The focus is the relation of decision-making power between men and women and between units in the community.
In the largest group of families, those with little or no land and only marginal access to positive aspects of modernization, the women have increased their workload, and gained in decision-making power. In this group the majority of families do in fact cultivate land on a tenancy basis. Both husband and wife work for wages whenever possible. The women's wage is used to supplement the staples grown, and only rarely does it stretch to buying more protein-rich foods, such as beans or meat. The family diet is based heavily on starches.
In the middle group, the strongest evidence of continuity with the past still exists. Although both men and women have lost certain areas of decision-making, other areas have compensated for their loss. In these households the land is held by right and householders cannot be dispossessed against their will. The men work for wages. Depending on the amount of land, the wives either stay at home and work their land with casual labourers, or they work full-time in seasonal or casual employment. In this group women often grow protein-rich foods, such as beans, which require more labour and care, and they can ask their husband to grow perennial crops.
The third group, comprising the largest landowners, have enjoyed the greatest benefits from the modern period. Women have lost their decision-making roles in favour of men, but they have acquired more decision-making in social spheres. They belong to the wealthier members of society. They need not worry about food and they have learned to expect proper medical care and education for their sons.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/TECH/AGRI WO/MODERN/GENDER/WO LO
Khare, R.S. (1984): Women's Role in Domestic Food Acquisition and Food Use in India: A Case Study of Low-income Urban Households. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 6 (1): 69-76.
The role of women in intra-household food management is discussed in relation to issues critical to food and nutrition policies and their analysis. A whole range of constraints, determining women's possibilities to procure and allocate food within the household are taken up and discussed on the basis of a study of low caste, low-income women in an urban area in India. The author points to the influence of income patterns on domestic food acquisition and time spent on cooking and feeding and hospitality. An insecure and insufficient income implied a precarious food budget and a corresponding greater effort spent on procuring both food and fuel. A more secure and sufficient income meant a greater involvement of women in cuisine and hospitality. The goods and service exchange arrangements between households are seen to provide an extra margin of security and survival for the urban poor. The government ration shops in India were operated in such a way that they represented some constraints to the household in terms of food availability and food quality, the problem of getting ration cards and long waiting lines. The low-income women spent their time and energy on meeting the family needs. They disliked spending excessive time and energy outside the home, in a marketplace or on a job, since they felt it would lead to family neglect. Women's decision power increased as they got children and grew older. The presence of an older woman in the household, especially the mother-in-law, seemed to give younger women with children more time, and result in better nutritional care of the children. The collection of data of how women spend their time included other information showing that different groups of women used their time more or less effectively. For instance, older women spent more time marketing than younger women. But the older women spent a lot of this time gossiping, while the younger women got their shopping done and then went home. It is therefore emphasized that time and energy data should be carefully interpreted within the given contextual and cultural significance.
ASIA/FIELD/PROJ/INC/WO LO
Kobes, J. and Scott, G.L. (1982): Women and Population, Health and Nutrition Interventions. Notes on Women in Development, No. 28, World Bank, Washington D.C. 31 pp.
The article discusses women's role in regard to health. Special emphasis is given to women's multiple roles, such as their economic and domestic ones. The authors emphasize the need for more research into the synergistic impact on health status of variables such as fertility, nutrition, food production, food storage, food processing, water, sanitation, fuel and income. The paper asserts that health care systems in most countries will have to be redirected away from predominantly curative and urban-based services to expand preventive and promotional activities that are closely linked to agriculture, irrigation, water supply, sanitation and education.
It is suggested that the design of health programmes should recognize problems women face in obtaining health care, special health problems of women due to their working conditions, the need to mobilize women as active providers of health care. It is also stressed that the ways in which men effect health conditions should not be overlooked.
GLOB/REV/PROJ/NUTR/CHI CA/WO HEAL/GENDER
Kumar, Shubh K. (1985): Women's Agricultural Work in a Subsistence-oriented Economy: Its Role in Production, Food Consumption and Nutrition. Paper presented at the XIIIth International Congress of Nutrition. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, 16 pp.
This paper examines the nature and significance of women's agricultural production in a mainly subsistence-oriented area in the Eastern Province of Zambia. Three types of households were investigated: Joint production between men and women (type I), female-headed (type II) and polygamous (type III), and the implications of these characteristics for agricultural productivity, seasonal food consumption and child nutritional status were examined. It was found that any generalizations about cropwise specialization by sex were impossible to make. In type I households, although women are involved in joint production of major cash crops, they do not undertake such production on their own. However, in type II households, women were found to grow cash crops on their own. Total labour input per acre and crop productivity were found to be the highest in type I households. Type III households had the lowest labour input and the lowest yields, but the latter was explained by a larger planted area, and declining yields being common with larger farm size. The food supply, in terms of duration, was the highest in type III households and the lowest in type II households. Children and women in type III households did not exhibit any decrease in nutritional status from the postharvest season to the lean season, as did the type I and II households. Analyses of farm production, seasonal food consumption and child nutrition are done to indicate the household-level factors that are responsible for influencing these three variables. One interesting finding was that female-headed households (type II) have a significantly higher level of child nutrition at any given income level.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/SUBS/SEASON/WHH
Leslie, Joanne (1985): Women's Work and Child Nutrition in the Third World. International Center for Research on Women. Washington D.C. 54 pp.
The author reviews 41 empirical studies that a) relate women's work to child feeding practices, and b) relate women's work to child nutritional status. It is concluded that there is no clear-cut relationship between women's work and child nutrition. This relationship appears to be both positive and negative, depending on a variety of factors, including the type of work/employment, income level, possibilities for child care substitutes and time that the working mother spends away from home. It especially points to the effect that women's work will have on raising income that can be spent on food and the negative effect it will have on time for child care and feeding. The findings are discussed in relation to implications for policy and future research.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROD/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/AGRI WO/INC
Linares, Olga (1985): Cash Crops and Gender Constructs: The Jola of Senegal. Ethnology 24 (2): 83-94.
Subsistence crops tend to serve many purposes and are seen as a social "glue" that insure old practices surrounding their production and utilization. Even if subsistence crops sometimes are sold for cash, there is a profound difference between such crops and cash crops grown exclusively for an export commodity market. The author stresses the importance of understanding not only the social organization around particular crops in a historical perspective, but also the changing meanings and symbols of such crops that contribute to the definition of sexual identities. The production of rice, palm-wine and ground-nuts among the Jola of Casamance, Senegal, is discussed in relation to patterns of production from precolonial times until today, the rituals surrounding these crops, the sexual division of labour concerning their production, and the gender-related activities connected with the sale of rice, palm-wine and groundnuts. Two different villages, of which one has a Muslim population, are compared in terms of gender differences. It is concluded that gender relations connected with the production and utilization of rice and palm-wine, are based on reciprocity and close cooperation between the sexes. These crops reinforce a whole set of cultural constraints having to do with gender parity, social symmetries and equal access to land and labour. Groundnuts, on the contrary, which are cultivated only in the Muslim village, were introduced by the colonial power and associated with male productive activities. The increasing emphasis on this crop has eroded rice production, and thereby undermined the rituals that secured over-production, reciprocity and redistribution of rice in the village.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/CA CRO/GENDER/ISLAM
Longhurst, Richard (1983): Agricultural Production and Food Consumption: Some Neglected Linkages. Food and Nutrition 9 (2): 2-6.
This article points out linkages between on-farm production and food consumption, important to consider in the formulation of agricultural policy. Three interrelated aspects of these linkages are discussed here, taking as a point of departure the farm family's own strategies to ensure food for all its members.
The first aspect deals with seasonality. The timing of production so that some food is available during the traditional "hungry season" has been part of people's own strategies. The author calls, among other things, for the introduction of crop varieties that mature quickly and encouragement of inter-cropping and serial cropping that could help to fill the gap before the main harvest. He particularly mentions the need to provide assistance to women in their farm tasks as well as child care and feeding, since women are burdened with heavy farm work at seasonal peaks. The second aspect discussed is the cultivation of so-called "minor crops". Minor crops, such as vegetables, pulses, fruits and tubers, are considered to fill important food deficit gaps at certain times of the year. It is pointed out that such crops most often are grown by women, both for subsistence and for cash. The third aspect is the role of women in farm production. Women are seen to be the "pivot between production and consumption". It is stated that there has been little attention paid to the interrelationship between seasonality, minor crops and women. The author believes that a major component of an agricultural strategy should be to strengthen women's indigenous institutions or organizations. He further stresses the need for better understanding of the links between production and consumption, and suggests an approach that examines the farm as a system including interrelated activities concerned with production and consumption.
GLOB/PROJ/PROD/NUTR/LINK/SEASON
Mascarenhas, Ophelia (1983): Implications of Constraints in Women's Control and Utilization of Resources for the Food and Nutritional Status of their Families. Paper presented at the TFNC/UNICEF Workshop on "Hunger and Society", Tanzania, Dec. 1983. 30 pp.
Sums up findings from a study of 5 villages in Iringa, Tanzania. The findings are discussed in a conceptual framework geared towards elucidating women's utilization of resources - land, labour time and skills - on the basis of the conflicting needs at household, community and national levels. The impact of women's access to and use of resources on household food availability and child feeding, have been studied in relation to the division of labour and decision-making power between the sexes and other socio-economic factors. Changes in women's workload and access to resources have been examined in relation to seasonality. Some of the most important constraints to improved nutritional conditions, were thought to be women's lack of time, because of excessive workload, which resulted in under-use of available agricultural land and underfeeding of children. Child care facilities, improved technology for women, and nutritional education through community participation are suggested to combat the causes of malnutrition.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/THEOR/PROD/HANDL/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/TECH/N
PLO/SUBS/SEASON/
INC/GENDER/WO LO/WHH
Mascarenhas, Ophelia (1984): Women's Allocation of Resources and its Implications for the Nutritional Status of their Children. Report to the WHO/UNICEF Nutrition Support Programme for Iringa, Tanzania. 16 pp.
This study constitutes a second stage of a previous survey of which data on intra-household allocation of resources and women's role in food procurement was collected (see Mascarenhas, 1983) from 5 villages in the Iringa district. The majority of the households included in the sample participated in the previous survey. The main aim was to provide data on child diet and nutritional status which could be linked to the 1983 findings on women. The final analysis of data revealed a relationship between child nutrition and food self-sufficiency. Food was used both for subsistence and cash. No definite overall negative effect was found between food converted to cash and child nutrition. Women's participation in casual agricultural work seemed to have a positive or a negative effect on child nutrition, depending on the socio-economic conditions. The need to increase productivity in agriculture was stressed as the most important means of improving child nutrition. The research findings were discussed with the village people and the paper ends with a series of recommendations for the further development of the UNICEF/WHO Nutrition Programme in Iringa. The recommendations stress the need for more research into intra-household conditions and suggestions are made for income-generating food crops and labour-saving technology for women.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROJ/PROD/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/TECH/PLO/SUBS/AGRI WO/INC
Mencher, Joan P. (1985): The Forgotten Ones. Female Landless Labourers in Southern India. In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming Economic Development. R.S. Gallin and A. Spring (Eds.) Association for Women in Development Conference Washington D.C. pp. 119-128.
Findings from research in 20 villages of the rice-producing districts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala States are presented on income-generating work done by landless women and the amounts of income contributed to household maintenance by men and women from landless households.
In the districts of investigation the proportion of landless female labourers to male labourers is very high, in most cases amounting to about 1 : 1. It was found that the women contribute a higher percentage of their earnings to the household, than the males. In absolute terms, women contributed. 53 to 1.21 times the amount contributed by men. Even so, women's wages were generally lower than men's, and the availability of work for women was also lower than for men. The poorest households are thus households without any male earners. Intra-and inter-village variability in number of days on a yearly basis that women obtain work, is discussed, and the lack of work opportunities for women is emphasized. The author states that mechanization and union demands for higher wages have contributed to an increase in female under-employment A call is made for programmes that combine training of new practical skills for women with organizational, decision-making and business skills as well.
ASIA/FIELD/AGRI WO/MODERN/INC/GENDER
Messer, Ellen (1983): The Household Focus in Nutritional Anthropology: An Overview. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 5 (4): 2-13.
The paper reviews different approaches within the anthropological tradition to studying food-related activities and food habits at the household level.
In light of the literature reviewed, the author discusses important topics for investigation of relevance to policy and programme interventions. Factors determining intra-household food distribution; the role and nutritional consequences of women's work in food production; and household factors, material and ideological, influencing child care and feeding are taken up. It is suggested that nutritional anthropologists and other medical and social scientists examining social factors in nutrition, revise their concept of the household as a focus in nutritional studies and employ other conceptual units of domestic groupings in their analyses. The following groupings, related to people's activities around food, are suggested as units of analysis: eating units, food budget units, child rearing units and social networks important in securing food availability.
GLOB/THEOR/REV/PROD/DISTR/CHI CA/LINK/GENDER
Nardi, Bonnie (1984): Infant Feeding and Women's Work in Western Samoa: A Hypothesis, some Evidence and Suggestions for future Research. Ecol. Food. Nutr. 8: 241-249.
The hypothesis that the key reason for decline in the age of weaning in Third World Countries is an increasing workload for women, resulting from increasing involvement in cash economy, is advanced. This hypothesis is considered in light of data collected in an anthropological field study of a rural village in western Samoa. Women in the research area maintained a complex schedule of activities, including subsistence agriculture, fishing, marketing, handicraft manufacture, food handling, housework and child care. Women have taken on a variety of new tasks and, according to the author, it is likely that their work time has expanded. Women reported that they generally initiated weaning because of their demanding work schedules and that they could accomplish more when assured the freedom by leaving their babies with other caretakers.
AGRIC/FISH/ASIA/PROD/MARK/CHI CA/NUTR/WO LO/LINK
National Swedish Board of Fisheries, Secretariat of Development Cooperation (1984): Family Oriented Activities and Extension in Fishing Community Development; Nutrition in Fisheries Development; Non-formal Education in Fishing Community Development. Fisheries Development Series, 13 and 14, Gothenburg, Sweden, pp 120 and 33.
This report discusses case studies within the Bay of Bengal Project (BOBP). These are concerned with improvement of the living conditions for disadvantaged women in fishing communities in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. These studies revealed that women were engaged in fish trade (Tamil Nadu, India; Bangladesh), fish drying (Bangladesh), net making (Tamil Nadu). Only 8% of the women interviewed in Sri Lanka were involved in any of the fishing activities.
The BOBP tries to achieve an improvement of the conditions of the fisherwomen through: (1) education and training to improve access to subsidies and welfare for the most disadvantaged among the target group; (2) through education, training and management support to create alternative employment; (3) through awareness-building and community organization to improve the situation of low income groups through a more equal distribution of production assets.
A nutritional focus has been attempted in the BOBP. Some of the pilot projects include nutrition-related activities such as nutritional education, growth monitoring of children, vegetable gardening, small animal raising.
It was pointed out that fish can be considered as relevant to nutrition in two ways: (1) the direct effects of fish as food; (2) the indirect nutritional effects of income from fisheries.
Contradictory effects of improvements in fishing communities are pointed out, e.g. if men get a sufficiently high income, their women will stop working and become housewives only, which gives higher status. This might decrease their power to make decisions. Another example is motorization of women's transport of fish, which could lead to decreasing local fish supplies.
FISH/ASIA/FIELD/PROJ/MARK/NUTR/INC
N'diaye, Kartouma (1985): Less Work but more Rice: IFAD aids Gambian women. Development Forum, UN, July-August.
The paper presents an IFAD-funded project in Gambia, aimed at women in rice production, which started in 1982. The project goals are to increase rice production while improving income, nutrition and welfare among smallholder farm families. Local participation in project planning and execution was facilitated. Problems faced by the women before the project started were: exhausting field labour, low yields, malnutrition and disease among them and their children. The double role of women, producing food and caring for children, was considered a constraint to production.
The project has facilitated nursery care, better access to fields, mechanization of farming, better water management for irrigation. So far the result have been a tremendous increase in rice production, increase in vegetable production (due to time saved in rice production) and growing optimism among the women. A more stable supply of rice to households has been secured through the establishment of cereal banks, which buy and resell rice to farmers at reasonable prices. Impact on nutrition and health is not discussed.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROJ/PROD/HANDL/CHI CA/NUTR/SUBS/INC/WO LO
Nerlove, S. (1974): Women's Work load and Infant Feeding Practices: A Relationship with Demographic Implications. Ethnology, 13: 207-214.
On the basis of the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample by Murdoch and White, the relationship between early introduction of supplementary infant-feeding and maternal participation in subsistence activities is analyzed. It was found that among women who begin supplementary feeding before infants reach one month, a high degree of participation in subsistence activities (agriculture, hunting, fishing, animal husbandry) is more common than among women who begin supplementary feeding later.
Though weaning starts late in many Third World societies, supplementary feeding may often start extremely early. Out of the 83 societies in the sample, 30 begin supplementary feeding before the age of 1 month, 23 between the ages of 1 and 6 months, and 27 after 6 months. This is significant as early supplementary feeding may be associated with high incidence of diarrhoea in societies with poor hygienic conditions.
AGRIC/FISH/GLOB/PROD/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/WO LO
Nestel, Penelope S. (1985): Nutrition of Maasai Women and Children in Relation to Subsistence Food Production." Ph.D. Thesis. Nutrition Department, Queen Elizabeth College, England. 261 pp.
A study of the causal relationships between subsistence food production, food availability, food expenditure, food consumption and nutritional status among pastoralists in Maasailand in Kenya. The study included a women's component, aimed at checking the hypothesis that women's decision-making and participatory role relating to food, would influence food expenditure patterns and nutrition in the household. It was found that women had very little control over food resources, because these resources were owned by men, who also made decisions regarding the use and purchase of food. The main resource in question was cattle, and women had exclusive right to and control of milk and hides from their allocated cows. These products were used for subsistence or for obtaining cash. The cash income was mainly spent on food for the family. It is suggested that increasing financial integration will improve women's access to and use of cash, and thereby influence the nutritional status of the family.
ANIMAL/AFR/FIELD/PROD/MARK/MARK/LINK/SUBS/INC/GENDER
Palmer, Ingrid (1977): Rural Women and the Basic Needs Approach to development. International Labour Review 115: 97-107.
The effect of modernization on rural women is discussed on the basis of documentation from Africa and Asia. The conclusion is drawn that present methods of introducing commercial crops and technological improvements in agriculture often have the effect of increasing women's work burden - while lowering men's, and at the same time reducing women's rights to income or resources generated by family labour. The author explains this phenomenon as being due to the unequal exchange relations between men and women, which tend to marginalize women. The monetization of production and market incorporation tend to handicap women in their quest for cash earnings, since they are pushed further into the subsistence economy, doing household work and producing food for self-provisioning. Institutions that follow increased monetization and market incorporation have also given prominence to men. In this way new exchange relations between the sexes are brought into existence, resulting from unequal distribution of institutional and economic power to the detriment of women.
The use of a basic-needs approach to development must therefore not only address itself to poor households, but also penetrate the exchange relations within the household. It is emphasized that a basic-needs strategy for women, must deal with two facets: one is women's role in the satisfaction of their family's basic needs; the other is the needs of women themselves. It is suggested that a basic-needs approach addressing women should include upgrading of women's non-remunerative work and strategies to ensure women have more authority over family earnings and raise the productivity of household work. It should also include strategies to "open up" production and exchange relations between the household and the community by creating institutions based on relations outside the household.
AGRIC/GLOB/THEOR/PROJ/MODERN/WO LO
Palmer, Ingrid (1981): Seasonal Dimensions of Women's Roles. In: Seasonal Dimensions to Rural poverty. R. Chambers, R. Longhurst and A. Pacey; Inst. of Development Studies, Frances Pinter (Publ.), London, pp. 195-201.
The conflict between seasonality of production and the seasonality of women's productive labour is discussed. A seasonal cycle is envisioned in which child care and agricultural work compete for the mothers' time and energy.
The impact of agricultural intensification on women is dependent on the different circumstances in which this intensification takes place. Examples are given from Gambia and Kenya where labour demand in agriculture underwent a sharp rise when paddy was introduced as a new crop. In areas where paddy cultivation has long been established such as in Malaysia and the Philippines the introduction of higher yielding crops and chemical inputs is likely to bring about a more modest increase in both labour demand and in its seasonal distribution. The effect on women is seen as dependent on the degree of mechanization and existence of a landless class which can offer a cheap supply of labour.
It is pointed out that gender typing of tasks is more subject to change than might be supposed from its observed rigidity. When there are large rises in labour productivity due to mechanization, a task which was formerly done by women is often taken over by men. Thus, income-generating opportunities of landless women may be seriously threatened.
It is stressed that in relation to planning, there is a need for information on social relations of production between men and women and between landed and landless people.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROD/TECH/SEASON/MODERN/GENDER/WO LO/CHI CA
Palmer, Ingrid (1985a): The Impact of Agrarian Reform on Women. Women's Roles and Gender Differences in Development. Population Council, Kumarian Press, West Hartford, USA. 55 pp.
The situation of women after agrarian reforms, such as land distribution between households, land adjudication settlement schemes, and producer cooperatives and collectives in different political and cultural settings is discussed. Land reforms in Iran resulted in improved cultivation practices, but inflexible sexual division of labour meant that female family labour was intensified. With land adjudication in Kenya very few women had land registered in their names. Settlement schemes in many different parts of the world seem to have common characteristics regarding women: land rights to male heads of households; precarious position of widows; no rights for divorced women; clear demarcation of land between men's cash crops and a small plot for women's food production for the household; improved farming practices (on cash crops) imposes a much heavier work burden on women; women lose sources of personal income; removal from traditional support networks comes at the most difficult time in their life cycle. When producer cooperatives and collectives are formed by land reform, women have not always been granted membership. The active support of a women's organization working to obtain equal conditions for women seems to be crucial in this regard.
Suggestions for alternative designs for agrarian reform:
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROD/SUBS/CA CRO/MODERN/INC/GENDER/WO LO
Palmer, Ingrid (1985b): The Impact of Male Out-migration on Women in Farming. Women's Roles and Gender Differences in Development. Kumarian Press, W. Hartford, USA, 78 pp.
This is an overview, prepared on the basis of case studies from 7 countries in Southern Africa and the Near East. The author challenges two commonly held and opposing views on the impact of male out-migration on the rural household. The first claims that the impact is pure gain for both the rural household and the community. The second view assumes private gain to the migrant and his household, but a social loss. The author points out that neither of these views offers insights into how women left behind see their options and make accommodations.
The case studies from Southern Africa report a number of problems that women left behind encounter in their agricultural work. The remittances appear to be inadequate to cover the need for labour. In Swaziland, difficulties faced by women farming on their own were reflected in the decline in farm assets in female-headed households. A study in Botswana showed that female-headed households plant a smaller percentage of their holdings, and plough the land less frequently than male-headed households.
The studies from the Near East show a somewhat different picture. In this region remittances, after an initial difficult period, are usually large enough to cover hired ploughing services. At that time, there should be no financial reasons why farm output levels cannot be maintained. However, the real impact depends on a number of factors. In Yemen, wives are left in the custody of male kin, and because low-yielding food production is unable to compete with food imports, remittances are diverted into high consumer spending. In Pakistan, women in extended families purchase more food and sometimes they invest in a buffalo or small livestock. Women in nuclear households tend to hire labour and gradually withdraw from most field tasks as remittances allow. The returning migrants see their future in non-agricultural, usually urban-based self employment. This is in part due to few opportunities to buy land.
AGRIC/ANIMAL/AFR/ASIA/REV/PROD/WO LO/ISLAM/WHH
Palmer, Ingrid (1985c): The Nemow Case. Women's Roles and Gender Differences in Development. Cases for Planners, Kumarian Press, West Hartford, USA, 53 pp.
This is a hypothetical model study, synthesizing a variety of well documented field experiences. The intention is to establish a conceptual framework and present methods for assessment of the impact of development projects on women. The study concerns an integrated rural development project, encompassing irrigation for increased rice production and modernization of the fishing fleet for increased off-shore catches. The aims of the project include, i.a., improvement of nutritional levels by raising incomes and increasing the local supply of fish. There is no special emphasis on women in the objectives of the official document.
The paper discusses the impact of the project as depicted, and an alternative project approach with emphasis on women's role and rights in regard to land ownership, membership in farmers' associations, extension service, decision-making power and division of labour. Instead of ending up with uneven gains in the satisfaction of basic human needs at the family level, no incentives to limit family size, no improvements and possibly some decline in women's roles between generations, the alternative approach would result in enhanced ability to meet basic human needs at the family level, incentives to limit family size, to consolidate economic gains transferable to the next generation, maintenance and possibly some enhancement of women's role and status. Even though women's heavy workload is mentioned as being in conflict with other attainments such as education and community activities as well as time for child care, this is not elaborated on in the alternative approach.
A methodological approach to the evaluation of the impact of large-scale development projects on women is given in the appendix.
AGRIC/FISH/GLOB/THEOR/PROD/NUTR/INC/WO LO/PROJ/TECH/MODERN/GENDER
Pinstrup-Andersen, Per (1983): Export Crop Production and Malnutrition. Food and Nutrition 9 (2): 7-14.
The possible nutritional impact of export-oriented agriculture is analyzed in this article. A number of factors which may explain the impact of export crop production are identified. These factors are discussed in relation to four different paths through which export cropping influences food intakes: 1) food availability at national local level; 2) ability of the household to obtain available food; 3) desire to obtain food to which the household has access; 4) intra-household food distribution. The article is illustrated with a model incorporating the four paths and the corresponding factors which are relevant as mediators of the nutritional impact of export crop production. The author argues that a greater emphasis on cash crop production may imply a more efficient use of scarce resources. Rural poor may increase their income and the nutritional impact may be positive, provided that an effort is made to increase local food production at the same time by intensifying cultivation on available land. Promotion of home gardens or other means for the household to produce food along with increased cash-crop production are seen as possible policy measures in this respect. Export crop production may also generate employment for the rural poor. Some of the factors discussed have special relevance for women, especially those related to points 3 and 4 above.
It is mentioned that women's control over income may decrease with expanded cash cropping. The demand for women's time may be altered for the same reason. It is suggested that government intervention focus on two issues: the ability to acquire food and household food acquisition behaviour.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/LINK/CA CRO
Pinstrup-Andersen, Per and Marito Garcia (1984): Household vs. Individual Food Consumption as Indicators of the Nutritional Impact of Food Policy. Paper presented at the workshop "Methods of measuring Intra-household Resource Allocation", Tuffs University (International Food Policy Research Inst., Washington, D.C.) 32 pp.
This paper compares results of various approaches to the estimation of nutritional effects of changes in household incomes. The results from attempts to establish a direct causal relationship between household income changes and changes in the weight for age of children (blackbox approach) are compared with results from various other more disaggregated "step-wise" approaches. The paper includes a comparison of approaches that use data on food consumption by individuals and those that do not.
The analysis is based on data collected twice from 800 households (for food consumption, 130 households) in a field study in the Philippines.
In this study, assessing household calorie adequacy as an indicator of the degree of calorie adequacy of preschoolers introduces large errors. It was a better indicator of the calorie adequacy of pregnant and lactating women.
Household incomes per capita appear to be a better proxy for the weight of preschoolers than household calorie variables.
Results from an analysis of the impact of change showed that changes in household incomes have no impact on the nutritional status of sample preschoolers. Incorporating household food acquisition as an additional link into the causal chain supports the conclusion of no nutritional effect. If food consumption by the preschoolers is used as the indicator, then the analysis shows a positive impact with a reasonable degree of probability.
The methods used, particularly that of food consumption and the assumptions made in the analysis are not sufficiently described to judge the validity of these findings.
ASIA/FIELD/NUTR/LINK
Piwoz, Ellen Gail and Fernando Viteri (1985): Studying Health and Nutrition Behaviour by Examining Household Decision-Making, Intra-Household Resource Distribution, and the Role of Women in these Processes. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 7 (4): 1-31.
The article addresses three objectives: (1) to identify aspects of household dynamics that influence intra-household distribution of resources; (2) to describe a method for carrying out community and household-level surveys to identify determinants and consequences of household behaviour; (3) to identify decision-making and resource allocation factors that influence health and nutrition behaviour in order to design educational interventions. The authors recommend that patterns of decision-making and resource distribution are studied in relation to "power bases" within the household. This refers to power relations between household members determined by gender and generation. It is postulated that nutrition education must address these relations in order to achieve behavioural change. The impact of general education and income-generating activities on women's control of resources and decision-making power is reviewed. The authors find evidence for improved control and decision-making power of women when their education and income are raised.
Relevant questions to ask in a community level survey are suggested. These are intended to help determine whether the nutritional problems are caused by inadequate resource supply to households or by inequitable distribution of resources within the household. Models and relevant questions for examination of intra-household food distribution are suggested and discussed in relation to nutrition education. The authors conclude that a broadening of the objective for nutrition education is needed, which takes into account the role and status of women and the division of labour and distribution of resources within the household.
AGRIC/GLOB/TECH/REV/PROD/DISTR/CHI CA/LINK/INC/GENDER/WO LO/WO HEAL/EDU
Popkin, Barry and Florentino Solon (1976): Income, Time, the Working Mother and Child Nutrition. I. Trop. Pediatr. Environ. Child Health 22: 156-66.
The article is based on field work in the Philippines, including a 24-hour recall survey, assessment of nutritional status, information on socio-economic status and mother's participation in the labour force, where market-related activities play a major role. The results show that the independent effect of the mother's market labour force on household food expenditures is positive; weekly food expenditures increased by 1-5%. On the other hand, child welfare was found to suffer. Calorie, protein, iron and vitamin A intakes of children whose mothers worked, were lower than those with mothers who did not work. The greatest differences occurred in relation to vitamin A. The explanation given was that most of the vitamin A intake came from vegetables. The manner in which these carotene-rich vegetables were prepared was rather time consuming. Thus, they would be served less frequently to children of working mothers. Socio-economic factors were also important determinants of the effect of mothers' participation in the labour force on children's nutritional status. In the low income households the mother who worked was associated with an increase in vitamin A malnutrition among children as measured by the prevalence of xerophthalmia and intake of vitamin A. The opposite was the case for households in higher income brackets. Furthermore, the working status of the mother was also associated with a decline in breast feeding.
The determinants of the effects of mothers' participation in the market labour force on the health and nutritional status of the young children were: the extent to which the job is compatible with child care; the quality of child care provided by those who substitute for the mother; the availability and extent to which market purchased goods and services can substitute for the mother's time, and the availability and quality of social services which provide substitutes for the mother's time.
ASIA/FIELD/MARK/HANDL/DISTR/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/INC/WO LO
Popkin, Barry, B. (1980): Time Allocation of the Mother and Child Nutrition. Ecol. Food. Nutr. 9: 1-14.
The article is based on a field study of about 600 households in 34 rural barrios in the Philippines. Mothers' participation in the market labour force was related to time spent on child care and household work as well as household food consumption and children's nutritional status. Mothers' participation in the labour force seemed to have no (or a slightly positive) effect on children's intake of energy and protein, but a negative effect on nutritional status.
The author points out that the reason for this negative correlation might be that it is the poorer mothers who work outside the home.
ASIA/FIELD/MARK/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/INC/WO LO
Potash, Betty (1985): Female Farmers, Mothers-in-Law and Extension Agents: Development Planning and a Rural Luo Community in Kenya. In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming Economic Development. R.S. Gallin and A. Spring (Eds.) Association for Women in Development Conference Washington D.C. pp. 55-60.
Women's role and status in farming is described for a Luo community in South Nyanza, Kenya. It was found that women do most of the farming and are responsible for the family subsistence. Women secure land rights only through marriage, and are introduced to farming by their mothers-in-law. Husbands sometimes have their own plot for cash crops, however women usually also do the farming on these plots. Because of the bad food distribution system in the area, women have to produce the full range of subsistence food.
The increasing monetization has increased women's workload, since income-generating activities are necessary, such as petty trade, brewing, agricultural labour and growing of cash crops. Women control the income they earn, if it is spent on household expenses. Men spend their income not only on the household, but for prestige as well. It is argued that agricultural innovations should primarily be aimed at women who do most of the farming. New technology will have to be labour-saving and suited to small subsistence plots. Recommended changes would have to include techniques for cultivating the entire range of staples. Cash earning opportunities should also be created. The present agricultural extension system is discussed in light of the recommendations above, and suggestions are offered for improving policy planning and changing the role of extension workers. The author is critical of the present national policy to increase involvement of men in farming, arguing that this will threaten women's ability to feed themselves and their children.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROJ/PROD/SUBS/GENDER
Rajagopalan, S., P.K. Kymal and Pu-ai Pei (1981): Births, Work and Nutrition in Tamil Nadu, India. In: Seasonal Dimensions to Rural Poverty. Chambers, Longhurst and Pacey (Eds.) Frances Pinter Ltd., London, pp 156-162.
The authors have studied the relationship between the change in birth rate according to season and the seasonality of women's agricultural work. It was found that the peak in birth rate came right before the heaviest period of agricultural work begins. It is suggested that this may affect infant nutrition adversely, by limiting time available for breast feeding. Older infants may well be weaned at this time, while the newborns get less than the optimum time at the breast.
AGRIC/ASIA/FIELD/PROD/CHI CA/LINK/WO LO
Richie, Jean (1977): Impact of Changing Food Production, Processing and Marketing systems on the Role of Women. FAO/UNFPA Projects at the UN Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 18 pp.
The author expresses the view that agricultural changes in Africa have resulted in the polarization of interests of African men and women, with consequences for women's work in food production. Reference is made to the dual economy, where men control cash and women produce food for subsistence. This has often resulted in a drop in the percentage of the family income allocated to women, since men considered cash crop earnings as their own property.
The subordinated role of women is reflected in their food intake. Surveys carried out in Nigeria and Ghana are cited. These indicate that women consume a lower proportion of their requirements than men. Short birth intervals and inadequate food supplies often result in children with low birth weight. Among the measures suggested for alleviating the situation, it is pointed out that training for farm and home tasks can not always be divided among sexes arbitrarily. Family-focussed extension programmes should strive to train men, women and youths in improving home and farm management. Both men and women need training in agricultural skills, nutrition, population education and improved use of family and community resources. The need to discover and promote low-risk techniques to increase the production of food crops and release labour for cash crops is emphasized.
AGRIC/AFR/OVERV/PROD/NUTR/WO LO
Rizvi, Najma (1983): Effects of Policy on Intra-household Food Distribution in Bangladesh. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 5 (4): 30-34.
The Bangladesh Food Security Plan includes schemes for increased staple food production, price support, market arrangements, and public food distribution. The author discusses the effect of this plan on household food availability and intra-household food distribution. Factors affecting this distribution are discussed, and the preferential treatment of males is emphasized. The author concludes that the Food Security Plan has had very little impact on poor people, partly because the planners have not taken household food behaviour and discrimination against women into account. It is argued that collaboration among economists, nutritionalists and anthropologists is needed to construct a food policy plan.
AGRIC/ASIA/PROJ/PROD/DISTR/GENDER
Safilios-Rothchild, Constantina (1981): The Role of Women in Modernizing Agricultural Systems. Paper prepared for WID/AID, USAID, Washington DC., 31 pp.
The author goes through available literature and examines the type and degree of participation of women in agriculture in different regions of the world. Agricultural modernization is discussed in relation to how it may affect the women's situation. It is concluded that the amount of female agricultural wage labour is increasing in parts of Asia and that the wages the women earn are essential for family survival. Women farm managers are also involved in cash production, but have inadequate access to extension services. They are, however, as innovative and knowledgeable about correct agricultural practices as men, if they have equal access to agricultural information and inputs.
A typology (a matrix) is introduced as a planning device. This categorizes rural areas according to high and low land availability and high or low labour supply. These four different categories are further subdivided into high or low percentages of female-headed households. It is suggested that efforts to modernize agriculture in areas with land scarcity and a high labour supply (such as many Asian countries), must plan for crops that are labour-intensive. Introduction of agricultural technology that displaces female labour must be accompanied by labour absorption strategies. A high prevalence of female-headed households make these strategies all the more important. In countries or areas with no land scarcity but with labour scarcity (such as in Sub-Saharan Africa), women are mostly unpaid family workers or farm managers of small independent holdings. A high prevalence of female-headed households makes it even more important to direct existing agricultural extension services towards catering for women. Labour-saving devices for women, both in productive and household work, are extremely important. The paper concludes with a discussion of different forms of women's cooperatives, which are considered essential if women are to benefit from agricultural development.
AGRIC/AFR/ASIA/GLOB/PROJ/REV/PROD/TECH/AGRI WO LO
Safilios-Rothschild, Constantina (1983): Women in Sheep and Goat Production and Marketing. Prepared for the Expert Consultation on Women in Food Production, FAO, Rome, 15 pp.
The role of women in sheep and goat production and marketing varies considerably not only from region to region and from country to country, but often even by ethnic group within the same country. It is stated that, in general, small ruminants tend to fall within women's rather than men's realms in most Sub-Saharan African countries. The milk and meat from the small ruminants could be important for family nutrition. The reasons why women keep goats and sheep were explored. The primary reason seems to be the desire to have a source of cash to pay school fees, health care costs, general family expenses and as an investment or as social security against misfortune and for meeting familial and social responsibilities rather than for consumption at the household level. It is stated that despite this evidence, policy makers persist in promoting goats' usefulness only in terms of nutritional improvements for small and marginal farmers.
ANIMAL/GLOB/PROJ/REV/PROD
Savané, Marie Angélique (1981): Implications for Women and their Work of Introducing Nutritional Considerations into Agricultural and Rural Development Projects. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 3 (3): 1-5.
This article is concerned with the meager results of projects aimed at integrating women into development, and how rural development can be redirected to benefit women. The author maintains that although some of the women's projects have succeeded in their main objective - that of reducing the imbalance between men and women in access to resources - they have never succeeded in calling into question the subordination of women in these societies and changing the division of tasks between the sexes. The lack of success for nutrition and health programmes was attributed to the fact that women have never been considered full-fledged producers. It is maintained that meeting the nutritional requirements of each member of the community means changing the structures of production, the method of assigning the land, production techniques, the division of labour between the sexes, and the distribution of resources and incomes. The new orientation will have to take into account women's roles in both reproduction and production, defining the relationship between the two.
SAVANÉ/AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/OVERV/PROD/NUTR/GENDER/EDU
Schumacher, Ilsa, Jennifer Sebstad, and Mayra Buvinic (1980): Limits to Productivity: Improving Women's Access to Technology and Credit. Paper prepared for Office of Women in Development, USAID, USA. 66 pp.
The authors state that the issue of technology is not a question of women with or without technology. Women are and have always been users of technology. The key issue is rather the kinds of technologies women use for different kinds of activities and the position of women in the production process, such that they can acquire and utilize "new" technologies.
Four main reasons are given for the fact that women have not been in a position to have access to "new" technologies:
1. The dual economy and the sexual differentiation of labour. This point refers to the fact that women have typically been involved in subsistence activities and men in cash crop activities.Recommendations are given for improving women's access to technology.2. Women's leverage for demand. Due to lack of education, capital and land, women have been unable to create an effective demand for their technological needs.
3. Programmatic focus of National Governments, Bilateral and International agencies. Most agricultural technologies are targeted at men. Women are most likely to receive technologies pertaining to their roles as mothers rather than as producers.
4. Women as subjects of technology: national level planning. Governments cannot effectively address the technology needs of women.
In regard to credit, women are already extensively involved in informal credit systems including money lenders. Thus, financial institutions must take into account women's active role as borrowers and the existing constraints limiting women's participation in formal borrowing systems. Examples of successful credit programmes for women are given.
AGRIC/GLOB/REV/PROD/HANDL/TECH/MODERN/GENDER
Spiro, Heather (1985): The Ilora Farm Settlement in Nigeria. Women's Roles and Gender Differences in Development. Population Council. Kumarian Press, West Hartford, USA. 50 pp.
An evaluation, with particular emphasis on women, of a settlement scheme in Western Nigeria. Colonization of a number of settlement schemes have been implemented since 1959. Their main objective was to stem the rural/urban migration of educated young males and females by establishing a carefully planned modern and mechanized farming system which would provide a good income. However, these settlements have had a high rate of settler turnover, and desertion has besieged the settlements from the start. Many women, particularly, were dissatisfied and have left the scheme. Most of the settlers were Yoruba, among whom the women spend much of their economic lives independent of their husbands. Wives and husbands have distinct financial responsibilities. Thus, direct access to security assets is important for both men and women. It is the husband's responsibility to provide staples (maize, yams, cassava), to house their families and provide basic items of clothing. Women are expected to supply sauces, stews and snacks plus additional clothing. However, in practice women often contribute beyond their traditional requirements. Yoruba women earn their income mostly through trading and farming.
In the scheme it was expected that male farmers would provide the "family income", women were included as unpaid family labour. In addition, they were given small plots of land by the husbands for their own farming. Women had to do much more farm work than the planners had estimated. In addition many women did trading, which was less advantageous than in traditional villages, because of absence of markets in the village, and less transport facilities. Women did not secure land, because the male heads of households held the ownership.
Suggestions for improvement of the situation of women in the schemes included:
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/TECH/INC/WO LO
Spring, Anita (1985): The Women in Agricultural Development Project in Malawi: Making Gender Free Development Work. In: Women Creating Wealth: Transforming Economic Development. R.S. Gallin and A. Spring (Eds.) Association for Women in Development Conference Washington D.C., pp. 71-75.
Experience from work done under the Women in Agricultural Development Project (WIADP) in Malawi during 1981-1983, is summarized. The WIADP was run through the Ministry of Agriculture and was associated with the country's National Rural Development Programme. The activities of the WIADP fell into four types: documentation of women's contribution to small-holder agriculture, data disaggregation by sex, action projects, and strategies for including women in the Rural Development Programme. The role of women in agriculture and their participation in RDP extension services in Malawi is discussed on the basis of data collected in a national agricultural survey. The action projects showed that women were interested in agricultural training and that women farmers improve their cultivation practices with training. The WIADP has also tried to legitimize the use of male extension workers. By collecting sex-disaggregated data as part of their job, the RDP extension workers were introduced to the process of thinking about the need to reach both women and men, and the planners were acquainted with the significance of women's contribution to agriculture.
AGRIC/AFR/PROJ/PROD/GENDER
Staudt, Kathleen (1976): Women Farmers and Inequities in Agricultural Services. In: Rural Women: Development or Underdevelopment. Ed. Wipper, Audrey. The African Studies Center, Michigan State University, pp. 81-94.
The extent of discrimination of women in the delivery of agricultural services is explored, based on data from a field study in Western Kenya. The reasons for such discrimination were then analyzed by examining a number of factors that could possibly account for it.
It was shown that women farm managers experience a persistent and pervasive bias in the delivery of agricultural services, such as number of visits from agricultural instructors, training and loan acquisition. Indeed, the bias was shown to increase in intensity as the value of the service increases and it makes no difference whether the women have a high economic status, large farms, or have shown willingness to adopt agricultural innovation. In spite of these inequities, women managers appear to be as productive and as adaptive as male farmers.
The majority of the agricultural instructors did not express overtly prejudicial attitudes towards women, who were apparently avoided because of customary patterns whereby men spoke to men and women to women.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/TECH/MODERN/GENDER
Staudt, Kathleen (1979): Women and Participation in Rural Development: A Framework for Project Design and Policyoriented Research. Rural Development Committee, Center for International Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. 78 pp.
A framework is developed with the intention of identifying the range of options available for equalizing women's opportunities with men's in rural development. This is to be built on an analysis of women's "opportunity structures". The concept of "opportunity structures" defines access to valued resources and possibilities for mobility. The central issue put forward to realize equalized opportunity is project staff accountability to women. In order to activate accountability to women, it is deemed necessary to build some incentive for staff to interact with female clientele. Different approaches to accomplish this are discussed.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/REV/PROD/GENDER
Stoler, Ann (1977): Class Structure and Female Autonomy in Rural Java. SIGNS, 3 (1): 74-89.
The paper, which is based on fieldwork in a Javanese village, considers two questions: (1) by what means and to what extent have women gained and maintained access to economic independence and social power in Javanese rural society, and (2) what are the effects of increasing demographic pressure and economic stratification on production relations and the role of women within them? It is maintained that the colonial impact on sex roles, with the sexual inequalities that emerged in other colonial situations, did not occur in Java.
In contrast to Africa, where male labour was recruited for cash crop production, as women could and did carry out the subsistence activities themselves, the labour recruitment in Asia utilized the entire family labour.
Women's role in the harvesting system, market system and domestic production and interhousehold exchange were analyzed. The analysis of the Javanese harvesting system revealed that it is not participation in collective social labour which gives women economic power, but rather a woman's ability to mobilize the social labour of others.
Increased use of technology in paddy cultivation and processing have displaced women. Poor women have in this regard not been released from agriculture but rather forced out of agriculture and obliged to seek non-agricultural employment. Rice pounding for a wage was formerly a major and regular source of income for women from poor households. It is pointed out that women from small landholdings and landless households have been traditionally involved in alternate income-producing activities outside of rice cultivation. They have in fact a larger set of viable alternatives to agricultural labour.
The author emphasizes that women cannot be viewed as a homogeneous group in a village society. Such a view would obscure fundamental differences in their access to and control over productive resources.
AGRIC/ASIA/INC/GENDER/AGRI WO/FIELD/PROD/MARK/TECH/PLO
Storgaard, Birgit (1976): Women in Ujamaa Villages. In: Rural women: Development or Underdevelopment. Ed.: Wipper, Audrey. The African Studies Center, Michigan State University, pp. 135-155.
The article is based on a field study from a rural area in the Bukoba District in Tanzania. It is argued that the potential for fundamental change in the position of women was missed at the introduction of the new mode of production. The traditional division of labour was brought into the ujamaa villages in spite of attempts to avoid it by choosing different patterns of production. Because a private sector was built into the model, a pattern similar to the traditional one could easily be transferred, whereby female labour became tied mainly to this sector. Women are still regarded as "hoes of their husbands". Women work at home in food production and household work; men work away from home in non-agricultural work or in communal work. Women's position with regard to private land has undergone no changes; the private land is owned by the men as heads of the households.
Even though ujamaa has the potential of increasing the status of women, this has not yet materialized.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/HANDL/SUBS/CA CRO/GENDER
Tinker, Irene (1979): New Technologies for Food Chain Activities: The Imperative of Equity for Women. Office of Women in Development, AID, Washington D.C. 43 pp.
It is argued that in order to alleviate world hunger and malnutrition, women must not only be included in development planning, they must be central to it. This has, to a great extent, been overlooked. Two biases in contemporary economic theory which create psychological road-blocks to the inclusion of women as equal partners in development are discussed. The first is the continued perception of a dichotomy between the modern and the traditional sectors, between the economic activities done for money and those done as a volunteer or citizen, between productive work and welfare activities. The second bias concerns the stereotypes of appropriate roles for women which interrelate with and are reinforced by definitions of economic activity. It is pointed out that there is a great inconsistency in what type of work is considered productive and included in economic accounts from different countries.
It is stated that new settlement schemes have had a particularly deleterious effect on the situation of women. Reference is made to several development efforts which may have contributed to increases in income but where food availability and nutritional levels have tended to fall. Reference is also made to development efforts which have been successful either by contributing to income-generation or to time-saving for women.
The author stresses that women are better equipped than men to deal with the effects of low income and landlessness. Men have a smaller set of alternatives when options are limited.
The technologies for food processing are discussed within two categories: firstly, mechanical technologies which reduce the expenditure of human or animal energy; secondly, improved methods of preservation and storing food. Preparation of food is discussed in the context of it's income-generating potential.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/REV/PROD/HANDL/TECH/INC/NUTR/LINK/SUBS/MODERN/WO LO
Tobisson, Eva (1980): Women, Food and Nutrition in Nyamurigura Village, Mara Region, Tanzania. A report presented to Tanzania Food and Nutrition Centre, 127 pp.
Focuses on implications of shifting subsistence production to a specialised one in order to participate in cash crop production, with particular emphasis on the conditions of women and children. Shows that both colonial policies and postindependence strategies for rural development have reinforced the subordination of women relative to men in the productive sector. At the same time these policies have increased the workload of women, negatively affecting not only their participation in decision making activities and communal work, but also the nutritional status of the family.
A great deal of data is presented on the diet and health status of Nyamurigura Village; particular diets of pregnant and lactating mothers; the relations of production between men and women at household level and the problem of the direct and indirect exclusion of women from political discussions, decision-making and communal work.
AGRIC/AFR/PROD/CHI CA/NUTR/LINK/CA CRO
Tommy, J.L. (1980): The Role of Women in Paddy Production: A Comparative Study in Decision making Aspects of Women in Agricultural Production in Moyamba District, Sierra Leone. Dep. of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Njala University College, Sierra Leone.
The study showed that although women generated a major part of the rural household labour, they had little control over matters that affected their labour input in paddy production. The survival rate of infants under one year born to women who operated heavy farm tools while pregnant appeared to be lower than among those operating lighter or less frequently used tools. A high percentage of the women included in the study were reported to have poor nutritional status.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/LINK/TECH/GENDER/WO LO
Tripp, Robert (1982): Farmers and Traders. Some Economic Determinants of Nutritional Status in Northern Ghana. Food and Nutrition 8 (1): 3-11.
This article describes the relationship between some economic factors and nutritional status of children in a farming community in northern Ghana. Women's economic roles in this society are domestic, agricultural and commercial. It was found that agricultural activities of men or women were less important to children's nutritional status than the trading activities. Of all variables tested, the trading activity of the mother was the one most significantly associated with the nutritional status of the child. Women generally earned small amounts of money from trading, compared to men, but this money was more readily used for the nutritional welfare of the children. The women had complete control over their earnings, which they could use to buy food to supplement that provided by their farming activities and those of their husbands.
TRIPP/AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/MARK/NUTR/LINK/INC
Wazir, Rekha (1985): Women and Landlessness. Women in Agricultural Production and Rural Development Service; Human Resources, Institutions and Agrarian Reform Division; FAO, Rome. 41 pp.
Through surveying the literature, the author analyses the women's situation within the landless group of rural poor. The objective of the paper is to identify relevant research issues and make policy recommendations. The problems of definition and measurement of landlessness in relation to women are discussed. The author points to the need to widen this definition to include issues relating to rights and access to land for women, and the necessity to standardize concepts and measurements if cross-country comparisons and intra-country monitoring are to be carried out. A socio-economic profile of landless women in the various regions of the world is outlined, discussing particular issues such as employment, time utilization, income, access to basic needs, access to credit, and seasonal fluctuations of these parameters.
Government policies, such as agrarian reforms, agricultural modernization and export-oriented strategies, are reviewed in relation to impact on landless women. All such policies seem in general to have affected women negatively. Special government programmes for rural poor are also reviewed, and also in these programmes women do not seem to have benefitted.
Women are not seen as passive recipients of government policies, but as executors of their own survival strategies. Possible economic, demographic and organizational survival responses of landless women are listed. The break-up of the joint family and the increase of female-headed households are cited as responses to changes in the agrarian structure. The paper ends with a list of research priorities and policy recommendations concerning landless women. Income-generation, women's organizations and labour-saving technology for women's non-remunerative work are listed as important policy measures.
AGRIC/GLOB/PROJ/OVERV/AGRI WO/MODERN/INC
World Bank (1980): Lesotho; Agricultural Sector Review. The Role of Women. Notes on Women in Development No. 7. Office of the Advisor on Women in Development. World Bank, Washington DC. 47 pp.
This paper maintains that the state of the agricultural sector in Lesotho is both a determinant and a consequence of male migration to South Africa. In 1976, the proportion of rural households with a migrant was 60%. Migration has given many rural households a relatively high income, but at a high social cost. The remittances received from the migrants are irregular. Agricultural productivity is clearly affected by the limited resources women control and their uncertainty as to when and how remittances will be received. It is difficult to meet expenditures on-time on the farms.
While there was previously a clear division of labour by sex for agricultural tasks, absence of males has forced women to take over or assist with many male tasks, such as assisting with ploughing and planting. Agriculture is also affected by the fact that women are not permitted to make decisions. The overall pattern is that a male farmer, even an absent migrant worker, retains the power of decision in respect to his farm. Only when the woman is the legal head of a household can she make all decisions at appropriate times in regard to all farming requirements.
Twenty percent of children under 5 years, and five percent of the mothers, are chronically malnourished. There is also a reportedly high rate of nutrition-related obesity among women.
AGRIC/AFR/FIELD/PROD/NUTR/GENDER/WO LO/WHH
Young, Kate (1980): A Methodological Approach to Analysing the Effects of Capitalist Agriculture on Women's Roles and their Position within the Community. In: Women in Rural development: Critical Issues. ILO, Geneva, 7 pp.
The assumption is challenged that more market-oriented agricultural development will push women into the subsistence sector, leaving them with the responsibility of producing food for domestic consumption. The author suggests that the effect of such development is rather to make women central in the production of crops destined for the market. Their new role would be to function as unremunerated familial labour in systems of small-scale production of market crops. An approach is suggested to studying a given production system and women's role within it, and how the process of integration into the market changes inter-gender relations. The approach is illustrated by using the author's field data from Mexico.
AGRIC/GLOB/THEOR/CA CRO/MODERN/GENDER
